Selenium setup is quite different from the setup of other commercial tools.
Before you can start writing Selenium code, you have to
install the language bindings libraries for your language of choice, the browser you
want to use, and the driver for that browser.
Follow the links below to get up and going with Selenium WebDriver.
If you wish to start with a low-code/record and playback tool, please check
Selenium IDE
Once you get things working, if you want to scale up your tests, check out the
Selenium Grid.
You can find the minimum required version of Node for any given version of Selenium in the
你可以在此查看 Selenium 对 Node 的版本支持情况
位于 Node Support Policy 中的相关章节 npmjs
Most Selenium users execute many sessions and need to organize them to minimize duplication and keep the code
more maintainable. Read on to learn about how to put this code into context for your use case with
Using Selenium.
2.1.3 - Organizing and Executing Selenium Code
Scaling Selenium execution with an IDE and a Test Runner library
If you want to run more than a handful of one-off scripts, you need to
be able to organize and work with your code. This page should give you
ideas for how to actually do productive things with your Selenium code.
Common Uses
Most people use Selenium to execute automated tests for web applications,
but Selenium support any use case of browser automation.
Repetitive Tasks
Perhaps you need to log into a website and download something, or submit a form.
You can create a Selenium script to run with a service at preset times.
Web Scraping
Are you looking to collect data from a site that doesn’t have an API? Selenium
will let you do this, but please make sure you are familiar with the website’s
terms of service as some websites do not permit it and others will even block Selenium.
Testing
Running Selenium for testing requires making assertions on actions taken by Selenium.
So a good assertion library is required. Additional features to provide structure for tests
require use of Test Runner.
IDEs
Regardless of how you use Selenium code,
you won’t be very effective writing or executing it without a good
Integrated Developer Environment. Here are some common options…
Even if you aren’t using Selenium for testing, if you have advanced use cases, it might make
sense to use a test runner to better organize your code. Being able to use before/after hooks
and run things in groups or in parallel can be very useful.
Choosing
There are many different test runners available.
All the code examples in this documentation can be found in (or is being moved to) our
example directories that use test runners and get executed every release to ensure all the code is correct and updated.
Here is a list of test runners with links. The first item is the one that is used by this repository and the one
that will be used for all examples on this page.
JUnit - A widely-used testing framework for Java-based Selenium tests.
TestNG - Offers extra features like parallel test execution and parameterized tests.
pytest - A preferred choice for many, thanks to its simplicity and powerful plugins.
unittest - Python’s standard library testing framework.
NUnit - A popular unit-testing framework for .NET.
RSpec - The most widely used testing library for running Selenium tests in Ruby.
Minitest - A lightweight testing framework that comes with Ruby standard library.
Jest - Primarily known as a testing framework for React, it can also be used for Selenium tests.
Mocha - The most common JS library for running Selenium tests.
Installing
This is very similar to what was required in Install a Selenium Library.
This code is only showing examples for what is being used in our Documentation Examples project.
Maven
Gradle
To use it in a project, add it to the requirements.txt file:
in the project’s csproj file, specify the dependency as a PackageReference in ItemGroup:
Add to project’s gemfile
In your project’s package.json, add requirement to dependencies:
This capability is optional, this is used to set the available browser version at remote end.
In recent versions of Selenium, if the version is not found on the system,
it will be automatically downloaded by Selenium Manager
importorg.openqa.selenium.PageLoadStrategy;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeOptions;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclasspageLoadStrategy{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){ChromeOptionschromeOptions=newChromeOptions();chromeOptions.setPageLoadStrategy(PageLoadStrategy.NORMAL);WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver(chromeOptions);try{// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://google.com");}finally{driver.quit();}}}
it('Navigate using normal page loading strategy',asyncfunction(){letdriver=awaitenv.builder().setChromeOptions(options.setPageLoadStrategy('normal')).build();awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');
importorg.openqa.selenium.PageLoadStrategy;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeOptions;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclasspageLoadStrategy{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){ChromeOptionschromeOptions=newChromeOptions();chromeOptions.setPageLoadStrategy(PageLoadStrategy.EAGER);WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver(chromeOptions);try{// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://google.com");}finally{driver.quit();}}}
importorg.openqa.selenium.PageLoadStrategy;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeOptions;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclasspageLoadStrategy{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){ChromeOptionschromeOptions=newChromeOptions();chromeOptions.setPageLoadStrategy(PageLoadStrategy.NONE);WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver(chromeOptions);try{// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://google.com");}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverPROXY="<HOST:PORT>"webdriver.DesiredCapabilities.FIREFOX['proxy']={"httpProxy":PROXY,"ftpProxy":PROXY,"sslProxy":PROXY,"proxyType":"MANUAL",}withwebdriver.Firefox()asdriver:# Open URLdriver.get("https://selenium.dev")
# this code was written with Selenium 4proxy=Selenium::WebDriver::Proxy.new(http:'<HOST:PORT>')cap=Selenium::WebDriver::Remote::Capabilities.chrome(proxy:proxy)driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for(:chrome,capabilities:cap)driver.get('http://google.com')
服务类用于管理驱动程序的启动和停止.
They can not be used with a Remote WebDriver session.
Service classes allow you to specify information about the driver,
like location and which port to use.
They also let you specify what arguments get passed
to the command line. Most of the useful arguments are related to logging.
Default Service instance
To start a driver with a default service instance:
Note: If you are using Selenium 4.6 or greater, you shouldn’t need to set a driver location.
If you can not update Selenium or have an advanced use case here is how to specify the driver location:
Logging functionality varies between browsers. Most browsers allow you to
specify location and level of logs. Take a look at the respective browser page:
Selenium lets you automate browsers on remote computers if
there is a Selenium Grid running on them. The computer that
executes the code is referred to as the client computer, and the computer with the browser and driver is
referred to as the remote computer or sometimes as an end-node.
To direct Selenium tests to the remote computer, you need to use a Remote WebDriver class
and pass the URL including the port of the grid on that machine. Please see the grid documentation
for all the various ways the grid can be configured.
Basic Example
The driver needs to know where to send commands to and which browser to start on the Remote computer. So an address
and an options instance are both required.
Uploading a file is more complicated for Remote WebDriver sessions because the file you want to
upload is likely on the computer executing the code, but the driver on the
remote computer is looking for the provided path on its local file system.
The solution is to use a Local File Detector. When one is set, Selenium will bundle
the file, and send it to the remote machine, so the driver can see the reference to it.
Some bindings include a basic local file detector by default, and all of them allow
for a custom file detector.
Java does not include a Local File Detector by default, so you must always add one to do uploads.
Chrome, Edge and Firefox each allow you to set the location of the download directory.
When you do this on a remote computer, though, the location is on the remote computer’s local file system.
Selenium allows you to enable downloads to get these files onto the client computer.
Enable Downloads in the Grid
Regardless of the client, when starting the grid in node or standalone mode,
you must add the flag:
--enable-managed-downloads true
Enable Downloads in the Client
The grid uses the se:downloadsEnabled capability to toggle whether to be responsible for managing the browser location.
Each of the bindings have a method in the options class to set this.
Be aware that Selenium is not waiting for files to finish downloading,
so the list is an immediate snapshot of what file names are currently in the directory for the given session.
Each browser has implemented special functionality that is available only to that browser.
Each of the Selenium bindings has implemented a different way to use those features in a Remote Session
Java requires you to use the Augmenter class, which allows it to automatically pull in implementations for
all interfaces that match the capabilities used with the RemoteWebDriver
The args parameter is for a list of command line switches to be used when starting the browser.
There are two excellent resources for investigating these arguments:
Examples for creating a default Service object, and for setting driver location and port
can be found on the Driver Service page.
Log output
Getting driver logs can be helpful for debugging issues. The Service class lets you
direct where the logs will go. Logging output is ignored unless the user directs it somewhere.
File output
To change the logging output to save to a specific file:
Note: Java also allows setting console output by System Property; Property key: ChromeDriverService.CHROME_DRIVER_LOG_PROPERTY Property value: DriverService.LOG_STDOUT or DriverService.LOG_STDERR
There are 6 available log levels: ALL, DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, SEVERE, and OFF.
Note that --verbose is equivalent to --log-level=ALL and --silent is equivalent to --log-level=OFF,
so this example is just setting the log level generically:
Note: Java also allows setting log level by System Property: Property key: ChromeDriverService.CHROME_DRIVER_LOG_LEVEL_PROPERTY Property value: String representation of ChromiumDriverLogLevel enum
There are 2 features that are only available when logging to a file:
append log
readable timestamps
To use them, you need to also explicitly specify the log path and log level.
The log output will be managed by the driver, not the process, so minor differences may be seen.
Note: Java also allows toggling these features by System Property: Property keys: ChromeDriverService.CHROME_DRIVER_APPEND_LOG_PROPERTY and ChromeDriverService.CHROME_DRIVER_READABLE_TIMESTAMP Property value: "true" or "false"
Chromedriver and Chrome browser versions should match, and if they don’t the driver will error.
If you disable the build check, you can force the driver to be used with any version of Chrome.
Note that this is an unsupported feature, and bugs will not be investigated.
Note: Java also allows disabling build checks by System Property: Property key: ChromeDriverService.CHROME_DRIVER_DISABLE_BUILD_CHECK Property value: "true" or "false"
The args parameter is for a list of command line switches to be used when starting the browser.
There are two excellent resources for investigating these arguments:
The binary parameter takes the path of an alternate location of browser to use. With this parameter you can
use chromedriver to drive various Chromium based browsers.
MSEdgedriver has several default arguments it uses to start the browser.
If you do not want those arguments added, pass them into excludeSwitches.
A common example is to turn the popup blocker back on. A full list of default arguments
can be parsed from the
Chromium Source Code
Examples for creating a default Service object, and for setting driver location and port
can be found on the Driver Service page.
Log output
Getting driver logs can be helpful for debugging issues. The Service class lets you
direct where the logs will go. Logging output is ignored unless the user directs it somewhere.
File output
To change the logging output to save to a specific file:
Note: Java also allows setting console output by System Property; Property key: EdgeDriverService.EDGE_DRIVER_LOG_PROPERTY Property value: DriverService.LOG_STDOUT or DriverService.LOG_STDERR
There are 6 available log levels: ALL, DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, SEVERE, and OFF.
Note that --verbose is equivalent to --log-level=ALL and --silent is equivalent to --log-level=OFF,
so this example is just setting the log level generically:
Note: Java also allows setting log level by System Property: Property key: EdgeDriverService.EDGE_DRIVER_LOG_LEVEL_PROPERTY Property value: String representation of ChromiumDriverLogLevel enum
There are 2 features that are only available when logging to a file:
append log
readable timestamps
To use them, you need to also explicitly specify the log path and log level.
The log output will be managed by the driver, not the process, so minor differences may be seen.
Note: Java also allows toggling these features by System Property: Property keys: EdgeDriverService.EDGE_DRIVER_APPEND_LOG_PROPERTY and EdgeDriverService.EDGE_DRIVER_READABLE_TIMESTAMP Property value: "true" or "false"
Edge browser and msedgedriver versions should match, and if they don’t the driver will error.
If you disable the build check, you can force the driver to be used with any version of Edge.
Note that this is an unsupported feature, and bugs will not be investigated.
Note: Java also allows disabling build checks by System Property: Property key: EdgeDriverService.EDGE_DRIVER_DISABLE_BUILD_CHECK Property value: "true" or "false"
Here are a few common use cases with different capabilities:
Arguments
The args parameter is for a list of Command line switches used when starting the browser. Commonly used args include -headless and "-profile", "/path/to/profile"
The binary parameter takes the path of an alternate location of browser to use. For example, with this parameter you can
use geckodriver to drive Firefox Nightly instead of the production version when both are present on your computer.
const{Builder}=require("selenium-webdriver");constfirefox=require('selenium-webdriver/firefox');constoptions=newfirefox.Options();letprofile='/path to custom profile';options.setProfile(profile);constdriver=newBuilder().forBrowser('firefox').setFirefoxOptions(options).build();
Service settings common to all browsers are described on the Service page.
Log output
Getting driver logs can be helpful for debugging various issues. The Service class lets you
direct where the logs will go. Logging output is ignored unless the user directs it somewhere.
File output
To change the logging output to save to a specific file:
Note: Java also allows setting console output by System Property; Property key: GeckoDriverService.GECKO_DRIVER_LOG_PROPERTY Property value: DriverService.LOG_STDOUT or DriverService.LOG_STDERR
Note: Java also allows setting log level by System Property: Property key: GeckoDriverService.GECKO_DRIVER_LOG_LEVEL_PROPERTY Property value: String representation of FirefoxDriverLogLevel enum
The driver logs everything that gets sent to it, including string representations of large binaries, so
Firefox truncates lines by default. To turn off truncation:
Note: Java also allows setting log level by System Property: Property key: GeckoDriverService.GECKO_DRIVER_LOG_NO_TRUNCATE Property value: "true" or "false"
The default directory for profiles is the system temporary directory. If you do not have access to that directory,
or want profiles to be created some place specific, you can change the profile root directory:
When working with an unfinished or unpublished extension, it will likely not be signed. As such, it can only
be installed as “temporary.” This can be done by passing in either a zip file or a directory, here’s an
example with a directory:
These are capabilities and features specific to Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers.
As of June 2022, Selenium officially no longer supports standalone Internet Explorer.
The Internet Explorer driver still supports running Microsoft Edge in “IE Compatibility Mode.”
Special considerations
The IE Driver is the only driver maintained by the Selenium Project directly.
While binaries for both the 32-bit and 64-bit
versions of Internet Explorer are available, there are some
known limitations
with the 64-bit driver. As such it is recommended to use the 32-bit driver.
Additional information about using Internet Explorer can be found on the
IE Driver Server page
Options
Starting a Microsoft Edge browser in Internet Explorer Compatibility mode with basic defined options looks like this:
If IE is not present on the system (default in Windows 11), you do not need to
use the two parameters above. IE Driver will use Edge and will automatically locate it.
If IE and Edge are both present on the system, you only need to set attaching to Edge,
IE Driver will automatically locate Edge on your system.
<p><ahref=/documentation/about/contributing/#moving-examples><spanclass="selenium-badge-code"data-bs-toggle="tooltip"data-bs-placement="right"title="One or more of these examples need to be implemented in the examples directory; click for details in the contribution guide">MoveCode</span></a></p>valoptions=InternetExplorerOptions()valdriver=InternetExplorerDriver(options)
Here are a few common use cases with different capabilities:
fileUploadDialogTimeout
在某些环境中, 当打开文件上传对话框时, Internet Explorer可能会超时. IEDriver的默认超时为1000毫秒, 但您可以使用fileUploadDialogTimeout功能来增加超时时间.
<p><ahref=/documentation/about/contributing/#creating-examples><spanclass="selenium-badge-code"data-bs-toggle="tooltip"data-bs-placement="right"title="This code example is missing. Examples are added to the examples directory; click for details in the contribution guide">AddExample</span></a></p>
Service settings common to all browsers are described on the Service page.
Log output
Getting driver logs can be helpful for debugging various issues. The Service class lets you
direct where the logs will go. Logging output is ignored unless the user directs it somewhere.
File output
To change the logging output to save to a specific file:
Note: Java also allows setting console output by System Property; Property key: InternetExplorerDriverService.IE_DRIVER_LOGFILE_PROPERTY Property value: DriverService.LOG_STDOUT or DriverService.LOG_STDERR
Note: Java also allows setting log level by System Property: Property key: InternetExplorerDriverService.IE_DRIVER_LOGLEVEL_PROPERTY Property value: String representation of InternetExplorerDriverLogLevel.DEBUG.toString() enum
Service settings common to all browsers are described on the Service page.
Logging
Unlike other browsers, Safari doesn’t let you choose where logs are output, or change levels. The one option
available is to turn logs off or on. If logs are toggled on, they can be found at:~/Library/Logs/com.apple.WebDriver/.
Note: Java also allows setting console output by System Property; Property key: SafariDriverService.SAFARI_DRIVER_LOGGING Property value: "true" or "false"
Perhaps the most common challenge for browser automation is ensuring
that the web application is in a state to execute a particular
Selenium command as desired. The processes often end up in
a race condition where sometimes the browser gets into the right
state first (things work as intended) and sometimes the Selenium code
executes first (things do not work as intended). This is one of the
primary causes of flaky tests.
All navigation commands wait for a specific readyState value
based on the page load strategy (the
default value to wait for is "complete") before the driver returns control to the code.
The readyState only concerns itself with loading assets defined in the HTML,
but loaded JavaScript assets often result in changes to the site,
and elements that need to be interacted with may not yet be on the page
when the code is ready to execute the next Selenium command.
Similarly, in a lot of single page applications, elements get dynamically
added to a page or change visibility based on a click.
An element must be both present and
displayed on the page
in order for Selenium to interact with it.
Take this page for example: https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/dynamic.html
When the “Add a box!” button is clicked, a “div” element that does not exist is created.
When the “Reveal a new input” button is clicked, a hidden text field element is displayed.
In both cases the transition takes a couple seconds.
If the Selenium code is to click one of these buttons and interact with the resulting element,
it will do so before that element is ready and fail.
The first solution many people turn to is adding a sleep statement to
pause the code execution for a set period of time.
Because the code can’t know exactly how long it needs to wait, this
can fail when it doesn’t sleep long enough. Alternately, if the value is set too high
and a sleep statement is added in every place it is needed, the duration of
the session can become prohibitive.
Selenium provides two different mechanisms for synchronization that are better.
Implicit waits
Selenium has a built-in way to automatically wait for elements called an implicit wait.
An implicit wait value can be set either with the timeouts
capability in the browser options, or with a driver method (as shown below).
This is a global setting that applies to every element location call for the entire session.
The default value is 0, which means that if the element is not found, it will
immediately return an error. If an implicit wait is set, the driver will wait for the
duration of the provided value before returning the error. Note that as soon as the
element is located, the driver will return the element reference and the code will continue executing,
so a larger implicit wait value won’t necessarily increase the duration of the session.
Warning:
Do not mix implicit and explicit waits.
Doing so can cause unpredictable wait times.
For example, setting an implicit wait of 10 seconds
and an explicit wait of 15 seconds
could cause a timeout to occur after 20 seconds.
Solving our example with an implicit wait looks like this:
Explicit waits are loops added to the code that poll the application
for a specific condition to evaluate as true before it exits the loop and
continues to the next command in the code. If the condition is not met before a designated timeout value,
the code will give a timeout error. Since there are many ways for the application not to be in the desired state,
so explicit waits are a great choice to specify the exact condition to wait for
in each place it is needed.
Another nice feature is that, by default, the Selenium Wait class automatically waits for the designated element to exist.
This example shows the condition being waited for as a lambda. Java also supports
Expected Conditions
The Wait class can be instantiated with various parameters that will change how the conditions are evaluated.
This can include:
Changing how often the code is evaluated (polling interval)
Specifying which exceptions should be handled automatically
Changing the total timeout length
Customizing the timeout message
For instance, if the element not interactable error is retried by default, then we can
add an action on a method inside the code getting executed (we just need to
make sure that the code returns true when it is successful):
The easiest way to customize Waits in Java is to use the FluentWait class:
Because Selenium cannot interact with the file upload dialog, it provides a way
to upload files without opening the dialog. If the element is an input element with type file,
you can use the send keys method to send the full path to the file that will be uploaded.
```java
import org.openqa.selenium.By
import org.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver
fun main() {
val driver = ChromeDriver()
driver.get("https://the-internet.herokuapp.com/upload")
driver.findElement(By.id("file-upload")).sendKeys("selenium-snapshot.jpg")
driver.findElement(By.id("file-submit")).submit()
if(driver.pageSource.contains("File Uploaded!")) {
println("file uploaded")
}
else{
println("file not uploaded")
}
}
```
2.5.2 - 查询网络元素
根据提供的定位值定位元素.
One of the most fundamental aspects of using Selenium is obtaining element references to work with.
Selenium offers a number of built-in locator strategies to uniquely identify an element.
There are many ways to use the locators in very advanced scenarios. For the purposes of this documentation,
let’s consider this HTML snippet:
<olid="vegetables"><liclass="potatoes">…
<liclass="onions">…
<liclass="tomatoes"><span>Tomato is a Vegetable</span>…
</ol><ulid="fruits"><liclass="bananas">…
<liclass="apples">…
<liclass="tomatoes"><span>Tomato is a Fruit</span>…
</ul>
First matching element
Many locators will match multiple elements on the page. The singular find element method will return a reference to the
first element found within a given context.
Evaluating entire DOM
When the find element method is called on the driver instance, it
returns a reference to the first element in the DOM that matches with the provided locator.
This value can be stored and used for future element actions. In our example HTML above, there are
two elements that have a class name of “tomatoes” so this method will return the element in the “vegetables” list.
Rather than finding a unique locator in the entire DOM, it is often useful to narrow the search to the scope
of another located element. In the above example there are two elements with a class name of “tomatoes” and
it is a little more challenging to get the reference for the second one.
One solution is to locate an element with a unique attribute that is an ancestor of the desired element and not an
ancestor of the undesired element, then call find element on that object:
Java and C# WebDriver, WebElement and ShadowRoot classes all implement a SearchContext interface, which is
considered a role-based interface. Role-based interfaces allow you to determine whether a particular
driver implementation supports a given feature. These interfaces are clearly defined and try
to adhere to having only a single role of responsibility.
Optimized locator
A nested lookup might not be the most effective location strategy since it requires two
separate commands to be issued to the browser.
There are several use cases for needing to get references to all elements that match a locator, rather
than just the first one. The plural find elements methods return a collection of element references.
If there are no matches, an empty list is returned. In this case,
references to all fruits and vegetable list items will be returned in a collection.
Often you get a collection of elements but want to work with a specific element, which means you
need to iterate over the collection and identify the one you want.
fromseleniumimportwebdriverfromselenium.webdriver.common.byimportBydriver=webdriver.Firefox()# Navigate to Urldriver.get("https://www.example.com")# Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'elements=driver.find_elements(By.TAG_NAME,'p')foreinelements:print(e.text)
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Firefox;usingSystem.Collections.Generic;namespaceFindElementsExample{classFindElementsExample{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newFirefoxDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");// Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'IList<IWebElement>elements=driver.FindElements(By.TagName("p"));foreach(IWebElementeinelements){System.Console.WriteLine(e.Text);}}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:firefoxbegin# Navigate to URLdriver.get'https://www.example.com'# Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'elements=driver.find_elements(:tag_name,'p')elements.each{|e|putse.text}ensuredriver.quitend
const{Builder,By}=require('selenium-webdriver');(asyncfunctionexample(){letdriver=awaitnewBuilder().forBrowser('firefox').build();try{// Navigate to Url
awaitdriver.get('https://www.example.com');// Get all the elements available with tag 'p'
letelements=awaitdriver.findElements(By.css('p'));for(leteofelements){console.log(awaite.getText());}}finally{awaitdriver.quit();}})();
importorg.openqa.selenium.Byimportorg.openqa.selenium.firefox.FirefoxDriverfunmain(){valdriver=FirefoxDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")// Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'
valelements=driver.findElements(By.tagName("p"))for(elementinelements){println("Paragraph text:"+element.text)}}finally{driver.quit()}}
Find Elements From Element
It is used to find the list of matching child WebElements within the context of parent element.
To achieve this, the parent WebElement is chained with ‘findElements’ to access child elements
importorg.openqa.selenium.By;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebElement;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;importjava.util.List;publicclassfindElementsFromElement{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("https://example.com");// Get element with tag name 'div'
WebElementelement=driver.findElement(By.tagName("div"));// Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'
List<WebElement>elements=element.findElements(By.tagName("p"));for(WebElemente:elements){System.out.println(e.getText());}}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverfromselenium.webdriver.common.byimportBydriver=webdriver.Chrome()driver.get("https://www.example.com")# Get element with tag name 'div'element=driver.find_element(By.TAG_NAME,'div')# Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'elements=element.find_elements(By.TAG_NAME,'p')foreinelements:print(e.text)
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;usingSystem.Collections.Generic;namespaceFindElementsFromElement{classFindElementsFromElement{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");// Get element with tag name 'div'IWebElementelement=driver.FindElement(By.TagName("div"));// Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'IList<IWebElement>elements=element.FindElements(By.TagName("p"));foreach(IWebElementeinelements){System.Console.WriteLine(e.Text);}}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegin# Navigate to URLdriver.get'https://www.example.com'# Get element with tag name 'div'element=driver.find_element(:tag_name,'div')# Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'elements=element.find_elements(:tag_name,'p')elements.each{|e|putse.text}ensuredriver.quitend
const{Builder,By}=require('selenium-webdriver');(asyncfunctionexample(){letdriver=newBuilder().forBrowser('chrome').build();awaitdriver.get('https://www.example.com');// Get element with tag name 'div'
letelement=driver.findElement(By.css("div"));// Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'
letelements=awaitelement.findElements(By.css("p"));for(leteofelements){console.log(awaite.getText());}})();
importorg.openqa.selenium.Byimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")// Get element with tag name 'div'
valelement=driver.findElement(By.tagName("div"))// Get all the elements available with tag name 'p'
valelements=element.findElements(By.tagName("p"))for(einelements){println(e.text)}}finally{driver.quit()}}
Get Active Element
It is used to track (or) find DOM element which has the focus in the current browsing context.
importorg.openqa.selenium.*;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclassactiveElementTest{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("http://www.google.com");driver.findElement(By.cssSelector("[name='q']")).sendKeys("webElement");// Get attribute of current active element
Stringattr=driver.switchTo().activeElement().getAttribute("title");System.out.println(attr);}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverfromselenium.webdriver.common.byimportBydriver=webdriver.Chrome()driver.get("https://www.google.com")driver.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR,'[name="q"]').send_keys("webElement")# Get attribute of current active elementattr=driver.switch_to.active_element.get_attribute("title")print(attr)
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;namespaceActiveElement{classActiveElement{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.google.com");driver.FindElement(By.CssSelector("[name='q']")).SendKeys("webElement");// Get attribute of current active elementstringattr=driver.SwitchTo().ActiveElement().GetAttribute("title");System.Console.WriteLine(attr);}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.google.com'driver.find_element(css:'[name="q"]').send_keys('webElement')# Get attribute of current active elementattr=driver.switch_to.active_element.attribute('title')putsattrensuredriver.quitend
const{Builder,By}=require('selenium-webdriver');(asyncfunctionexample(){letdriver=awaitnewBuilder().forBrowser('chrome').build();awaitdriver.get('https://www.google.com');awaitdriver.findElement(By.css('[name="q"]')).sendKeys("webElement");// Get attribute of current active element
letattr=awaitdriver.switchTo().activeElement().getAttribute("title");console.log(`${attr}`)})();
importorg.openqa.selenium.Byimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://www.google.com")driver.findElement(By.cssSelector("[name='q']")).sendKeys("webElement")// Get attribute of current active element
valattr=driver.switchTo().activeElement().getAttribute("title")print(attr)}finally{driver.quit()}}
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Click on the element
WebElementcheckInput=driver.findElement(By.name("checkbox_input"));checkInput.click();
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Click on the element driver.find_element(By.NAME,"color_input").click()
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Click the elementdriver.FindElement(By.Name("color_input")).Click();
# Navigate to URLdriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Click the elementdriver.find_element(name:'color_input').click
// Navigate to Url
awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html');// Click the element
awaitdriver.findElement(By.name('color_input')).click();
// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")// Click the element
driver.findElement(By.name("color_input")).click();
// Clear field to empty it from any previous data
WebElementemailInput=driver.findElement(By.name("email_input"));emailInput.clear();//Enter Text
Stringemail="admin@localhost.dev";emailInput.sendKeys(email);
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Clear field to empty it from any previous datadriver.find_element(By.NAME,"email_input").clear()# Enter Textdriver.find_element(By.NAME,"email_input").send_keys("admin@localhost.dev")
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Clear field to empty it from any previous datadriver.FindElement(By.Name("email_input")).Clear();//Enter Textdriver.FindElement(By.Name("email_input")).SendKeys("admin@localhost.dev");}
# Navigate to URLdriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Clear field to empty it from any previous datadriver.find_element(name:'email_input').clear# Enter Textdriver.find_element(name:'email_input').send_keys'admin@localhost.dev'
// Navigate to Url
awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html');//Clear field to empty it from any previous data
awaitdriver.findElement(By.name('email_input')).clear();// Enter text
awaitdriver.findElement(By.name('email_input')).sendKeys('admin@localhost.dev');
// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//Clear field to empty it from any previous data
driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).clear()// Enter text
driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).sendKeys("admin@localhost.dev")
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Clear field to empty it from any previous datadriver.find_element(By.NAME,"email_input").clear()
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Clear field to empty it from any previous datadriver.FindElement(By.Name("email_input")).Clear();}
# Navigate to URLdriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Clear field to empty it from any previous datadriver.find_element(name:'email_input').clear
// Navigate to Url
awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html');//Clear field to empty it from any previous data
awaitdriver.findElement(By.name('email_input')).clear();
// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//Clear field to empty it from any previous data
driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).clear()
To work on a web element using Selenium, we need to first locate it on the web page.
Selenium provides us above mentioned ways, using which we can locate element on the
page. To understand and create locator we will use the following HTML snippet.
<html><body><style>.information{background-color:white;color:black;padding:10px;}</style><h2>Contact Selenium</h2><formaction="/action_page.php"><inputtype="radio"name="gender"value="m"/>Male <inputtype="radio"name="gender"value="f"/>Female <br><br><labelfor="fname">First name:</label><br><inputclass="information"type="text"id="fname"name="fname"value="Jane"><br><br><labelfor="lname">Last name:</label><br><inputclass="information"type="text"id="lname"name="lname"value="Doe"><br><br><labelfor="newsletter">Newsletter:</label><inputtype="checkbox"name="newsletter"value="1"/><br><br><inputtype="submit"value="Submit"></form><p>To know more about Selenium, visit the official page
<ahref ="www.selenium.dev">Selenium Official Page</a></p></body></html>
class name
The HTML page web element can have attribute class. We can see an example in the
above shown HTML snippet. We can identify these elements using the class name locator
available in Selenium.
CSS is the language used to style HTML pages. We can use css selector locator strategy
to identify the element on the page. If the element has an id, we create the locator
as css = #id. Otherwise the format we follow is css =[attribute=value] .
Let us see an example from above HTML snippet. We will create locator for First Name
textbox, using css.
We can use the ID attribute available with element in a web page to locate it.
Generally the ID property should be unique for a element on the web page.
We will identify the Last Name field using it.
We can use the NAME attribute available with element in a web page to locate it.
Generally the NAME property should be unique for a element on the web page.
We will identify the Newsletter checkbox using it.
If the element we want to locate is a link, we can use the link text locator
to identify it on the web page. The link text is the text displayed of the link.
In the HTML snippet shared, we have a link available, lets see how will we locate it.
WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();driver.findElement(By.linkText("Selenium Official Page"));
driver=webdriver.Chrome()driver.find_element(By.LINK_TEXT,"Selenium Official Page")
vardriver=newChromeDriver();driver.FindElement(By.LinkText("Selenium Official Page"));
driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromedriver.find_element(link_text:'Selenium Official Page')
letdriver=awaitnewBuilder().forBrowser('chrome').build();constloc=awaitdriver.findElement(By.linkText('Selenium Official Page'));
valdriver=ChromeDriver()valloc:WebElement=driver.findElement(By.linkText("Selenium Official Page"))
partial link text
If the element we want to locate is a link, we can use the partial link text locator
to identify it on the web page. The link text is the text displayed of the link.
We can pass partial text as value.
In the HTML snippet shared, we have a link available, lets see how will we locate it.
We can use the HTML TAG itself as a locator to identify the web element on the page.
From the above HTML snippet shared, lets identify the link, using its html tag “a”.
A HTML document can be considered as a XML document, and then we can use xpath
which will be the path traversed to reach the element of interest to locate the element.
The XPath could be absolute xpath, which is created from the root of the document.
Example - /html/form/input[1]. This will return the male radio button.
Or the xpath could be relative. Example- //input[@name=‘fname’]. This will return the
first name text box. Let us create locator for female radio button using xpath.
Selenium 4 introduces Relative Locators (previously
called as Friendly Locators). These locators are helpful when it is not easy to construct a locator for
the desired element, but easy to describe spatially where the element is in relation to an element that does have
an easily constructed locator.
How it works
Selenium uses the JavaScript function
getBoundingClientRect()
to determine the size and position of elements on the page, and can use this information to locate neighboring elements. find the relative elements.
Relative locator methods can take as the argument for the point of origin, either a previously located element reference,
or another locator. In these examples we’ll be using locators only, but you could swap the locator in the final method with
an element object and it will work the same.
Let us consider the below example for understanding the relative locators.
Available relative locators
Above
If the email text field element is not easily identifiable for some reason, but the password text field element is,
we can locate the text field element using the fact that it is an “input” element “above” the password element.
If the password text field element is not easily identifiable for some reason, but the email text field element is,
we can locate the text field element using the fact that it is an “input” element “below” the email element.
If the cancel button is not easily identifiable for some reason, but the submit button element is,
we can locate the cancel button element using the fact that it is a “button” element to the “left of” the submit element.
If the submit button is not easily identifiable for some reason, but the cancel button element is,
we can locate the submit button element using the fact that it is a “button” element “to the right of” the cancel element.
If the relative positioning is not obvious, or it varies based on window size, you can use the near method to
identify an element that is at most 50px away from the provided locator.
One great use case for this is to work with a form element that doesn’t have an easily constructed locator,
but its associated input label element does.
You can also chain locators if needed. Sometimes the element is most easily identified as being both above/below one element and right/left of another.
// Navigate to the url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Get boolean value for is element display
booleanisEmailVisible=driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).isDisplayed();
# Navigate to the urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Get boolean value for is element displayis_email_visible=driver.find_element(By.NAME,"email_input").is_displayed()
//Navigate to the urldriver.Url="https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html";//Get boolean value for is element displayBooleanis_email_visible=driver.FindElement(By.Name("email_input")).Displayed;
# Navigate to the urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");#fetch display statusval=driver.find_element(name:'email_input').displayed?
// Resolves Promise and returns boolean value
letresult=awaitdriver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).isDisplayed();
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//returns true if element is displayed else returns false
valflag=driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).isDisplayed()
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");//returns true if element is enabled else returns false
booleanvalue=driver.findElement(By.name("button_input")).isEnabled();
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Returns true if element is enabled else returns falsevalue=driver.find_element(By.NAME,'button_input').is_enabled()
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Store the WebElementIWebElementelement=driver.FindElement(By.Name("button_input"));// Prints true if element is enabled else returns falseSystem.Console.WriteLine(element.Enabled);
# Navigate to urldriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Returns true if element is enabled else returns falseele=driver.find_element(name:'button_input').enabled?
// Resolves Promise and returns boolean value
letelement=awaitdriver.findElement(By.name("button_input")).isEnabled();
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//returns true if element is enabled else returns false
valattr=driver.findElement(By.name("button_input")).isEnabled()
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");//returns true if element is checked else returns false
booleanvalue=driver.findElement(By.name("checkbox_input")).isSelected();
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Returns true if element is checked else returns falsevalue=driver.find_element(By.NAME,"checkbox_input").is_selected()
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Returns true if element ins checked else returns falseboolvalue=driver.FindElement(By.Name("checkbox_input")).Selected;
# Navigate to urldriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Returns true if element is checked else returns falseele=driver.find_element(name:"checkbox_input").selected?
// Returns true if element ins checked else returns false
letisSelected=awaitdriver.findElement(By.name("checkbox_input")).isSelected();
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//returns true if element is checked else returns false
valattr=driver.findElement(By.name("checkbox_input")).isSelected()
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");//returns TagName of the element
Stringvalue=driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).getTagName();
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Returns TagName of the elementattr=driver.find_element(By.NAME,"email_input").tag_name
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Returns TagName of the elementstringattr=driver.FindElement(By.Name("email_input")).TagName;
# Navigate to urldriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Returns TagName of the elementattr=driver.find_element(name:"email_input").tag_name
// Returns TagName of the element
letvalue=awaitdriver.findElement(By.name('email_input')).getTagName();
//navigates to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//returns TagName of the element
valattr=driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).getTagName()
位置和大小
用于获取参照元素的尺寸和坐标。
提取的数据主体包含以下详细信息:
元素左上角的X轴位置
元素左上角的y轴位置
元素的高度
元素的宽度
// Navigate to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");// Returns height, width, x and y coordinates referenced element
Rectangleres=driver.findElement(By.name("range_input")).getRect();// Rectangle class provides getX,getY, getWidth, getHeight methods
System.out.println(res.getX());
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Returns height, width, x and y coordinates referenced elementres=driver.find_element(By.NAME,"range_input").rect
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");varres=driver.FindElement(By.Name("range_input"));// Return x and y coordinates referenced elementSystem.Console.WriteLine(res.Location);// Returns height, widthSystem.Console.WriteLine(res.Size);
# Navigate to urldriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html'# Returns height, width, x and y coordinates referenced elementres=driver.find_element(name:"range_input").rect
// Navigate to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")// Returns height, width, x and y coordinates referenced element
valres=driver.findElement(By.name("range_input")).rect// Rectangle class provides getX,getY, getWidth, getHeight methods
println(res.getX())
获取元素CSS值
获取当前浏览上下文中元素的特定计算样式属性的值。
// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/colorPage.html");// Retrieves the computed style property 'color' of linktext
StringcssValue=driver.findElement(By.id("namedColor")).getCssValue("background-color");
# Navigate to Urldriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/colorPage.html')# Retrieves the computed style property 'color' of linktextcssValue=driver.find_element(By.ID,"namedColor").value_of_css_property('background-color')
// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/colorPage.html");// Retrieves the computed style property 'color' of linktextStringcssValue=driver.FindElement(By.Id("namedColor")).GetCssValue("background-color");
# Navigate to Urldriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/colorPage.html'# Retrieves the computed style property 'color' of linktextcssValue=driver.find_element(:id,'namedColor').css_value('background-color')
awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/colorPage.html');// Returns background color of the element
letvalue=awaitdriver.findElement(By.id('namedColor')).getCssValue('background-color');
// Navigate to Url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/colorPage.html")// Retrieves the computed style property 'color' of linktext
valcssValue=driver.findElement(By.id("namedColor")).getCssValue("background-color")
文本内容
获取特定元素渲染后的文本内容。
// Navigate to url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/linked_image.html");// Retrieves the text of the element
Stringtext=driver.findElement(By.id("justanotherlink")).getText();
# Navigate to urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/linked_image.html")# Retrieves the text of the elementtext=driver.find_element(By.ID,"justanotherlink").text
// Navigate to urldriver.Url="https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/linked_image.html";// Retrieves the text of the elementStringtext=driver.FindElement(By.Id("justanotherlink")).Text;
# Navigate to urldriver.get'https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/linked_image.html'# Retrieves the text of the elementtext=driver.find_element(:id,'justanotherlink').text
awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/linked_image.html');// Returns text of the element
lettext=awaitdriver.findElement(By.id('justanotherLink')).getText();
// Navigate to URL
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/linked_image.html")// retrieves the text of the element
valtext=driver.findElement(By.id("justanotherlink")).getText()
获取特性或属性
获取与 DOM 属性关联的运行时的值。
它返回与该元素的 DOM 特性或属性关联的数据。
//Navigate to the url
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");//identify the email text box
WebElementemailTxt=driver.findElement(By.name(("email_input")));//fetch the value property associated with the textbox
StringvalueInfo=eleSelLink.getAttribute("value");
# Navigate to the urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")# Identify the email text boxemail_txt=driver.find_element(By.NAME,"email_input")# Fetch the value property associated with the textboxvalue_info=email_txt.get_attribute("value")
//Navigate to the urldriver.Url="https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html";//identify the email text boxIWebElementemailTxt=driver.FindElement(By.Name(("email_input")));//fetch the value property associated with the textboxStringvalueInfo=eleSelLink.GetAttribute("value");
# Navigate to the urldriver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html");#identify the email text boxemail_element=driver.find_element(name:'email_input')#fetch the value property associated with the textboxemailVal=email_element.attribute("value");
// identify the email text box
constemailElement=awaitdriver.findElement(By.xpath('//input[@name="email_input"]'));//fetch the attribute "name" associated with the textbox
constnameAttribute=awaitemailElement.getAttribute("name");
// Navigate to URL
driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/inputs.html")//fetch the value property associated with the textbox
valattr=driver.findElement(By.name("email_input")).getAttribute("value")
//Click the link to activate the alert
driver.findElement(By.linkText("See an example alert")).click();//Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variable
Alertalert=wait.until(ExpectedConditions.alertIsPresent());//Store the alert text in a variable
Stringtext=alert.getText();//Press the OK button
alert.accept();
# Click the link to activate the alertdriver.find_element(By.LINK_TEXT,"See an example alert").click()# Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variablealert=wait.until(expected_conditions.alert_is_present())# Store the alert text in a variabletext=alert.text# Press the OK buttonalert.accept()
//Click the link to activate the alertdriver.FindElement(By.LinkText("See an example alert")).Click();//Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variableIAlertalert=wait.Until(ExpectedConditions.AlertIsPresent());//Store the alert text in a variablestringtext=alert.Text;//Press the OK buttonalert.Accept();
# Click the link to activate the alertdriver.find_element(:link_text,'See an example alert').click# Store the alert reference in a variablealert=driver.switch_to.alert# Store the alert text in a variablealert_text=alert.text# Press on OK buttonalert.accept
//Click the link to activate the alert
awaitdriver.findElement(By.linkText('See an example alert')).click();// Wait for the alert to be displayed
awaitdriver.wait(until.alertIsPresent());// Store the alert in a variable
letalert=awaitdriver.switchTo().alert();//Store the alert text in a variable
letalertText=awaitalert.getText();//Press the OK button
awaitalert.accept();// Note: To use await, the above code should be inside an async function
//Click the link to activate the alert
driver.findElement(By.linkText("See an example alert")).click()//Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variable
valalert=wait.until(ExpectedConditions.alertIsPresent())//Store the alert text in a variable
valtext=alert.getText()//Press the OK button
alert.accept()
//Click the link to activate the alert
driver.findElement(By.linkText("See a sample confirm")).click();//Wait for the alert to be displayed
wait.until(ExpectedConditions.alertIsPresent());//Store the alert in a variable
Alertalert=driver.switchTo().alert();//Store the alert in a variable for reuse
Stringtext=alert.getText();//Press the Cancel button
alert.dismiss();
# Click the link to activate the alertdriver.find_element(By.LINK_TEXT,"See a sample confirm").click()# Wait for the alert to be displayedwait.until(expected_conditions.alert_is_present())# Store the alert in a variable for reusealert=driver.switch_to.alert# Store the alert text in a variabletext=alert.text# Press the Cancel buttonalert.dismiss()
//Click the link to activate the alertdriver.FindElement(By.LinkText("See a sample confirm")).Click();//Wait for the alert to be displayedwait.Until(ExpectedConditions.AlertIsPresent());//Store the alert in a variableIAlertalert=driver.SwitchTo().Alert();//Store the alert in a variable for reusestringtext=alert.Text;//Press the Cancel buttonalert.Dismiss();
# Click the link to activate the alertdriver.find_element(:link_text,'See a sample confirm').click# Store the alert reference in a variablealert=driver.switch_to.alert# Store the alert text in a variablealert_text=alert.text# Press on Cancel buttonalert.dismiss
//Click the link to activate the alert
awaitdriver.findElement(By.linkText('See a sample confirm')).click();// Wait for the alert to be displayed
awaitdriver.wait(until.alertIsPresent());// Store the alert in a variable
letalert=awaitdriver.switchTo().alert();//Store the alert text in a variable
letalertText=awaitalert.getText();//Press the Cancel button
awaitalert.dismiss();// Note: To use await, the above code should be inside an async function
//Click the link to activate the alert
driver.findElement(By.linkText("See a sample confirm")).click()//Wait for the alert to be displayed
wait.until(ExpectedConditions.alertIsPresent())//Store the alert in a variable
valalert=driver.switchTo().alert()//Store the alert in a variable for reuse
valtext=alert.text//Press the Cancel button
alert.dismiss()
//Click the link to activate the alert
driver.findElement(By.linkText("See a sample prompt")).click();//Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variable
Alertalert=wait.until(ExpectedConditions.alertIsPresent());//Type your message
alert.sendKeys("Selenium");//Press the OK button
alert.accept();
# Click the link to activate the alertdriver.find_element(By.LINK_TEXT,"See a sample prompt").click()# Wait for the alert to be displayedwait.until(expected_conditions.alert_is_present())# Store the alert in a variable for reusealert=Alert(driver)# Type your messagealert.send_keys("Selenium")# Press the OK buttonalert.accept()
//Click the link to activate the alertdriver.FindElement(By.LinkText("See a sample prompt")).Click();//Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variableIAlertalert=wait.Until(ExpectedConditions.AlertIsPresent());//Type your messagealert.SendKeys("Selenium");//Press the OK buttonalert.Accept();
# Click the link to activate the alertdriver.find_element(:link_text,'See a sample prompt').click# Store the alert reference in a variablealert=driver.switch_to.alert# Type a messagealert.send_keys("selenium")# Press on Ok buttonalert.accept
//Click the link to activate the alert
awaitdriver.findElement(By.linkText('See a sample prompt')).click();// Wait for the alert to be displayed
awaitdriver.wait(until.alertIsPresent());// Store the alert in a variable
letalert=awaitdriver.switchTo().alert();//Type your message
awaitalert.sendKeys("Selenium");//Press the OK button
awaitalert.accept();//Note: To use await, the above code should be inside an async function
//Click the link to activate the alert
driver.findElement(By.linkText("See a sample prompt")).click()//Wait for the alert to be displayed and store it in a variable
valalert=wait.until(ExpectedConditions.alertIsPresent())//Type your message
alert.sendKeys("Selenium")//Press the OK button
alert.accept()
importorg.openqa.selenium.*;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclassaddCookie{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("http://www.example.com");// Adds the cookie into current browser context
driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("key","value"));}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()driver.get("http://www.example.com")# Adds the cookie into current browser contextdriver.add_cookie({"name":"key","value":"value"})
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;namespaceAddCookie{classAddCookie{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");// Adds the cookie into current browser contextdriver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("key","value"));}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.example.com'# Adds the cookie into current browser contextdriver.manage.add_cookie(name:"key",value:"value")ensuredriver.quitend
it('Create a cookie',asyncfunction(){awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');// set a cookie on the current domain
awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'key',value:'value'});
importorg.openqa.selenium.Cookieimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")// Adds the cookie into current browser context
driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("key","value"))}finally{driver.quit()}}
获取命名的 Cookie
此方法返回与cookie名称匹配的序列化cookie数据中所有关联的cookie.
importorg.openqa.selenium.*;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclassgetCookieNamed{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("http://www.example.com");driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("foo","bar"));// Get cookie details with named cookie 'foo'
Cookiecookie1=driver.manage().getCookieNamed("foo");System.out.println(cookie1);}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()# Navigate to urldriver.get("http://www.example.com")# Adds the cookie into current browser contextdriver.add_cookie({"name":"foo","value":"bar"})# Get cookie details with named cookie 'foo'print(driver.get_cookie("foo"))
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;namespaceGetCookieNamed{classGetCookieNamed{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("foo","bar"));// Get cookie details with named cookie 'foo'varcookie=driver.Manage().Cookies.GetCookieNamed("foo");System.Console.WriteLine(cookie);}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.example.com'driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"foo",value:"bar")# Get cookie details with named cookie 'foo'putsdriver.manage.cookie_named('foo')ensuredriver.quitend
it('Read cookie',asyncfunction(){awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');// set a cookie on the current domain
awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'foo',value:'bar'});// Get cookie details with named cookie 'foo'
awaitdriver.manage().getCookie('foo').then(function(cookie){console.log('cookie details => ',cookie);});
importorg.openqa.selenium.Cookieimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("foo","bar"))// Get cookie details with named cookie 'foo'
valcookie=driver.manage().getCookieNamed("foo")println(cookie)}finally{driver.quit()}}
importorg.openqa.selenium.*;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;importjava.util.Set;publicclassgetAllCookies{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("http://www.example.com");// Add few cookies
driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("test1","cookie1"));driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("test2","cookie2"));// Get All available cookies
Set<Cookie>cookies=driver.manage().getCookies();System.out.println(cookies);}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()# Navigate to urldriver.get("http://www.example.com")driver.add_cookie({"name":"test1","value":"cookie1"})driver.add_cookie({"name":"test2","value":"cookie2"})# Get all available cookiesprint(driver.get_cookies())
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;namespaceGetAllCookies{classGetAllCookies{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("test1","cookie1"));driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("test2","cookie2"));// Get All available cookiesvarcookies=driver.Manage().Cookies.AllCookies;}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.example.com'driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"test1",value:"cookie1")driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"test2",value:"cookie2")# Get all available cookiesputsdriver.manage.all_cookiesensuredriver.quitend
it('Read all cookies',asyncfunction(){awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');// Add few cookies
awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'test1',value:'cookie1'});awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'test2',value:'cookie2'});// Get all Available cookies
awaitdriver.manage().getCookies().then(function(cookies){console.log('cookie details => ',cookies);});
importorg.openqa.selenium.Cookieimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("test1","cookie1"))driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("test2","cookie2"))// Get All available cookies
valcookies=driver.manage().cookiesprintln(cookies)}finally{driver.quit()}}
删除 Cookie
此方法删除与提供的cookie名称匹配的cookie数据.
importorg.openqa.selenium.*;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclassdeleteCookie{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("http://www.example.com");driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("test1","cookie1"));Cookiecookie1=newCookie("test2","cookie2");driver.manage().addCookie(cookie1);// delete a cookie with name 'test1'
driver.manage().deleteCookieNamed("test1");/*
Selenium Java bindings also provides a way to delete
cookie by passing cookie object of current browsing context
*/driver.manage().deleteCookie(cookie1);}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()# Navigate to urldriver.get("http://www.example.com")driver.add_cookie({"name":"test1","value":"cookie1"})driver.add_cookie({"name":"test2","value":"cookie2"})# Delete a cookie with name 'test1'driver.delete_cookie("test1")
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;namespaceDeleteCookie{classDeleteCookie{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("test1","cookie1"));varcookie=newCookie("test2","cookie2");driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(cookie);// delete a cookie with name 'test1' driver.Manage().Cookies.DeleteCookieNamed("test1");// Selenium .net bindings also provides a way to delete// cookie by passing cookie object of current browsing contextdriver.Manage().Cookies.DeleteCookie(cookie);}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.example.com'driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"test1",value:"cookie1")driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"test2",value:"cookie2")# delete a cookie with name 'test1'driver.manage.delete_cookie('test1')ensuredriver.quitend
it('Delete a cookie',asyncfunction(){awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');// Add few cookies
awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'test1',value:'cookie1'});awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'test2',value:'cookie2'});// Delete a cookie with name 'test1'
awaitdriver.manage().deleteCookie('test1');// Get all Available cookies
awaitdriver.manage().getCookies().then(function(cookies){console.log('cookie details => ',cookies);});
importorg.openqa.selenium.Cookieimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("test1","cookie1"))valcookie1=Cookie("test2","cookie2")driver.manage().addCookie(cookie1)// delete a cookie with name 'test1'
driver.manage().deleteCookieNamed("test1")// delete cookie by passing cookie object of current browsing context.
driver.manage().deleteCookie(cookie1)}finally{driver.quit()}}
删除所有 Cookies
此方法删除当前访问上下文的所有cookie.
importorg.openqa.selenium.*;importorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriver;publicclassdeleteAllCookies{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){WebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{driver.get("http://www.example.com");driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("test1","cookie1"));driver.manage().addCookie(newCookie("test2","cookie2"));// deletes all cookies
driver.manage().deleteAllCookies();}finally{driver.quit();}}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()# Navigate to urldriver.get("http://www.example.com")driver.add_cookie({"name":"test1","value":"cookie1"})driver.add_cookie({"name":"test2","value":"cookie2"})# Deletes all cookiesdriver.delete_all_cookies()
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;namespaceDeleteAllCookies{classDeleteAllCookies{publicstaticvoidMain(string[]args){IWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();try{// Navigate to Urldriver.Navigate().GoToUrl("https://example.com");driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("test1","cookie1"));driver.Manage().Cookies.AddCookie(newCookie("test2","cookie2"));// deletes all cookiesdriver.Manage().Cookies.DeleteAllCookies();}finally{driver.Quit();}}}}
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.example.com'driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"test1",value:"cookie1")driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"test2",value:"cookie2")# deletes all cookiesdriver.manage.delete_all_cookiesensuredriver.quitend
it('Delete all cookies',asyncfunction(){awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');// Add few cookies
awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'test1',value:'cookie1'});awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'test2',value:'cookie2'});// Delete all cookies
awaitdriver.manage().deleteAllCookies();
importorg.openqa.selenium.Cookieimportorg.openqa.selenium.chrome.ChromeDriverfunmain(){valdriver=ChromeDriver()try{driver.get("https://example.com")driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("test1","cookie1"))driver.manage().addCookie(Cookie("test2","cookie2"))// deletes all cookies
driver.manage().deleteAllCookies()}finally{driver.quit()}}
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()driver.get("http://www.example.com")# Adds the cookie into current browser context with sameSite 'Strict' (or) 'Lax'driver.add_cookie({"name":"foo","value":"value",'sameSite':'Strict'})driver.add_cookie({"name":"foo1","value":"value",'sameSite':'Lax'})cookie1=driver.get_cookie('foo')cookie2=driver.get_cookie('foo1')print(cookie1)print(cookie2)
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://www.example.com'# Adds the cookie into current browser context with sameSite 'Strict' (or) 'Lax'driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"foo",value:"bar",same_site:"Strict")driver.manage.add_cookie(name:"foo1",value:"bar",same_site:"Lax")putsdriver.manage.cookie_named('foo')putsdriver.manage.cookie_named('foo1')ensuredriver.quitend
it('Create cookies with sameSite',asyncfunction(){awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/blank.html');// set a cookie on the current domain with sameSite 'Strict' (or) 'Lax'
awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'key',value:'value',sameSite:'Strict'});awaitdriver.manage().addCookie({name:'key',value:'value',sameSite:'Lax'});
# Store iframe web elementiframe=driver.find_element(:css,'#modal> iframe')# 切换到 framedriver.switch_to.frameiframe# 单击按钮driver.find_element(:tag_name,'button').click
如果您的 frame 或 iframe 具有 id 或 name 属性,则可以使用该属性。如果名称或 id 在页面上不是唯一的,
那么将切换到找到的第一个。
// 使用 ID
driver.switchTo().frame("buttonframe");// 或者使用 name 代替
driver.switchTo().frame("myframe");// 现在可以点击按钮
driver.findElement(By.tagName("button")).click();
# 通过 id 切换框架driver.switch_to.frame('buttonframe')# 单击按钮driver.find_element(By.TAG_NAME,'button').click()
// 使用 IDdriver.SwitchTo().Frame("buttonframe");// 或者使用 name 代替driver.SwitchTo().Frame("myframe");// 现在可以点击按钮driver.FindElement(By.TagName("button")).Click();
# Switch by IDdriver.switch_to.frame'buttonframe'# 单击按钮driver.find_element(:tag_name,'button').click
// 使用 ID
awaitdriver.switchTo().frame('buttonframe');// 或者使用 name 代替
awaitdriver.switchTo().frame('myframe');// 现在可以点击按钮
awaitdriver.findElement(By.css('button')).click();
// 使用 ID
driver.switchTo().frame("buttonframe")// 或者使用 name 代替
driver.switchTo().frame("myframe")// 现在可以点击按钮
driver.findElement(By.tagName("button")).click()
#Access each dimension individuallyx=driver.manage.window.position.xy=driver.manage.window.position.y# Or store the dimensions and query them laterrect=driver.manage.window.rectx1=rect.xy1=rect.y
fromseleniumimportwebdriverdriver=webdriver.Chrome()# Navigate to urldriver.get("http://www.example.com")# Returns and base64 encoded string into imagedriver.save_screenshot('./image.png')driver.quit()
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Support.UI;vardriver=newChromeDriver();driver.Navigate().GoToUrl("http://www.example.com");Screenshotscreenshot=(driverasITakesScreenshot).GetScreenshot();screenshot.SaveAsFile("screenshot.png",ScreenshotImageFormat.Png);// Format values are Bmp, Gif, Jpeg, Png, Tiff
require'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://example.com/'# Takes and Stores the screenshot in specified pathdriver.save_screenshot('./image.png')end
fromseleniumimportwebdriverfromselenium.webdriver.common.byimportBydriver=webdriver.Chrome()# Navigate to urldriver.get("http://www.example.com")ele=driver.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR,'h1')# Returns and base64 encoded string into imageele.screenshot('./image.png')driver.quit()
usingOpenQA.Selenium;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Chrome;usingOpenQA.Selenium.Support.UI;// Webdrivervardriver=newChromeDriver();driver.Navigate().GoToUrl("http://www.example.com");// Fetch element using FindElementvarwebElement=driver.FindElement(By.CssSelector("h1"));// Screenshot for the elementvarelementScreenshot=(webElementasITakesScreenshot).GetScreenshot();elementScreenshot.SaveAsFile("screenshot_of_element.png");
# Works with Selenium4-alpha7 Ruby bindings and aboverequire'selenium-webdriver'driver=Selenium::WebDriver.for:chromebegindriver.get'https://example.com/'ele=driver.find_element(:css,'h1')# Takes and Stores the element screenshot in specified pathele.save_screenshot('./image.jpg')end
const{Builder,By}=require('selenium-webdriver');letfs=require('fs');(asyncfunctionexample(){letdriver=awaitnewBuilder().forBrowser('chrome').build();awaitdriver.get('https://www.example.com');letele=awaitdriver.findElement(By.css("h1"));// Captures the element screenshot
letencodedString=awaitele.takeScreenshot(true);awaitfs.writeFileSync('./image.png',encodedString,'base64');awaitdriver.quit();}())
//Creating the JavascriptExecutor interface object by Type casting
JavascriptExecutorjs=(JavascriptExecutor)driver;//Button Element
WebElementbutton=driver.findElement(By.name("btnLogin"));//Executing JavaScript to click on element
js.executeScript("arguments[0].click();",button);//Get return value from script
Stringtext=(String)js.executeScript("return arguments[0].innerText",button);//Executing JavaScript directly
js.executeScript("console.log('hello world')");
# Stores the header elementheader=driver.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR,"h1")# Executing JavaScript to capture innerText of header elementdriver.execute_script('return arguments[0].innerText',header)
//creating Chromedriver instanceIWebDriverdriver=newChromeDriver();//Creating the JavascriptExecutor interface object by Type castingIJavaScriptExecutorjs=(IJavaScriptExecutor)driver;//Button ElementIWebElementbutton=driver.FindElement(By.Name("btnLogin"));//Executing JavaScript to click on elementjs.ExecuteScript("arguments[0].click();",button);//Get return value from scriptStringtext=(String)js.ExecuteScript("return arguments[0].innerText",button);//Executing JavaScript directlyjs.ExecuteScript("console.log('hello world')");
# Stores the header elementheader=driver.find_element(css:'h1')# Get return value from scriptresult=driver.execute_script("return arguments[0].innerText",header)# Executing JavaScript directlydriver.execute_script("alert('hello world')")
// Stores the header element
letheader=awaitdriver.findElement(By.css('h1'));// Executing JavaScript to capture innerText of header element
lettext=awaitdriver.executeScript('return arguments[0].innerText',header);
// Stores the header element
valheader=driver.findElement(By.cssSelector("h1"))// Get return value from script
valresult=driver.executeScript("return arguments[0].innerText",header)// Executing JavaScript directly
driver.executeScript("alert('hello world')")
A representation of any pointer device for interacting with a web page.
There are only 3 actions that can be accomplished with a mouse:
pressing down on a button, releasing a pressed button, and moving the mouse.
Selenium provides convenience methods that combine these actions in the most common ways.
Click and hold
This method combines moving the mouse to the center of an element with pressing the left mouse button.
This is useful for focusing a specific element:
There are a total of 5 defined buttons for a Mouse:
0 — Left Button (the default)
1 — Middle Button (currently unsupported)
2 — Right Button
3 — X1 (Back) Button
4 — X2 (Forward) Button
Context Click
This method combines moving to the center of an element with pressing and releasing the right mouse button (button 2).
This is otherwise known as “right-clicking”:
This method moves the mouse to the in-view center point of the element.
This is otherwise known as “hovering.”
Note that the element must be in the viewport or else the command will error.
These methods first move the mouse to the designated origin and then
by the number of pixels in the provided offset.
Note that the position of the mouse must be in the viewport or else the command will error.
Offset from Element
This method moves the mouse to the in-view center point of the element,
then moves by the provided offset.
This method moves the mouse from its current position by the offset provided by the user.
If the mouse has not previously been moved, the position will be in the upper left
corner of the viewport.
Note that the pointer position does not change when the page is scrolled.
Note that the first argument X specifies to move right when positive, while the second argument
Y specifies to move down when positive. So moveByOffset(30, -10) moves right 30 and up 10 from
the current mouse position.
A Pen is a type of pointer input that has most of the same behavior as a mouse, but can
also have event properties unique to a stylus. Additionally, while a mouse
has 5 buttons, a pen has 3 equivalent button states:
0 — Touch Contact (the default; equivalent to a left click)
2 — Barrel Button (equivalent to a right click)
5 — Eraser Button (currently unsupported by drivers)
This is the most common scenario. Unlike traditional click and send keys methods,
the actions class does not automatically scroll the target element into view,
so this method will need to be used if elements are not already inside the viewport.
This method takes a web element as the sole argument.
Regardless of whether the element is above or below the current viewscreen,
the viewport will be scrolled so the bottom of the element is at the bottom of the screen.
This is the second most common scenario for scrolling. Pass in an delta x and a delta y value for how much to scroll
in the right and down directions. Negative values represent left and up, respectively.
This scenario is effectively a combination of the above two methods.
To execute this use the “Scroll From” method, which takes 3 arguments.
The first represents the origination point, which we designate as the element,
and the second two are the delta x and delta y values.
If the element is out of the viewport,
it will be scrolled to the bottom of the screen, then the page will be scrolled by the provided
delta x and delta y values.
This scenario is used when you need to scroll only a portion of the screen, and it is outside the viewport.
Or is inside the viewport and the portion of the screen that must be scrolled
is a known offset away from a specific element.
This uses the “Scroll From” method again, and in addition to specifying the element,
an offset is specified to indicate the origin point of the scroll. The offset is
calculated from the center of the provided element.
If the element is out of the viewport,
it first will be scrolled to the bottom of the screen, then the origin of the scroll will be determined
by adding the offset to the coordinates of the center of the element, and finally
the page will be scrolled by the provided delta x and delta y values.
Note that if the offset from the center of the element falls outside of the viewport,
it will result in an exception.
Scroll from a offset of origin (element) by given amount
The final scenario is used when you need to scroll only a portion of the screen,
and it is already inside the viewport.
This uses the “Scroll From” method again, but the viewport is designated instead
of an element. An offset is specified from the upper left corner of the
current viewport. After the origin point is determined,
the page will be scrolled by the provided delta x and delta y values.
Note that if the offset from the upper left corner of the viewport falls outside of the screen,
it will result in an exception.
While the specification is in works, the browser vendors are parallely implementing
the WebDriver BiDirectional Protocol.
Refer web-platform-tests dashboard
to see how far along the browser vendors are.
Selenium is trying to keep up with the browser vendors and has started implementing W3C BiDi APIs.
The goal is to ensure APIs are W3C compliant and uniform among the different language bindings.
However, until the specification and corresponding Selenium implementation is complete there are many useful things that
CDP offers. Selenium offers some useful helper classes that use CDP.
2.8.1 - Chrome DevTools
Many browsers provide “DevTools” – a set of tools that are integrated with the browser that
developers can use to debug web apps and explore the performance of their pages. Google Chrome’s
DevTools make use of a protocol called the Chrome DevTools Protocol (or “CDP” for short).
As the name suggests, this is not designed for testing, nor to have a stable API, so functionality
is highly dependent on the version of the browser.
The WebDriver BiDirectional Protocol is the next generation of the
W3C WebDriver protocol and aims to provide a stable API implemented by all browsers, but it’s not yet complete.
Until it is, Selenium provides access to
the CDP for those browsers that implement it (such as Google Chrome, or Microsoft Edge, and
Firefox), allowing you to enhance your tests in interesting ways. Some examples of what you can
do with it are given below.
Ways to Use Chrome DevTools With Selenium
There are three different ways to access Chrome DevTools in Selenium. If you look for other examples online,
you will likely see each of these mixed and matched.
The CDP Endpoint was the first option available to users.
It only works for the most simple things (setting state, getting basic information), and you
have to know the “magic strings” for the domain and methods and key value pairs.
For basic requirements, this might be simpler than the other options. These methods are only temporarily supported.
The CDP API is an improvement on just using the endpoint because you can set
do things asynchronously. Instead of a String and a Map, you can access the supported classes,
methods and parameters in the code. These methods are also only temporarily supported.
The BiDi API option should be used whenever possible because it
abstracts away the implementation details entirely and will work with either CDP or WebDriver-BiDi
when Selenium moves away from CDP.
Examples With Limited Value
There are a number of commonly cited examples for using CDP that are of limited practical value.
Geo Location — almost all sites use the IP address to determine physical location,
so setting an emulated geolocation rarely has the desired effect.
Overriding Device Metrics — Chrome provides a great API for setting Mobile Emulation
in the Options classes, which is generally superior to attempting to do this with CDP.
Check out the examples in these documents for ways to do additional useful things:
2.8.1.1 - Chrome DevTools Protocol Endpoint
Google provides a /cdp/execute endpoint that can be accessed directly. Each Selenium binding provides a method that allows you to pass the CDP domain as a String, and the required parameters as a simple Map.
These methods will eventually be removed. It is recommended to use the WebDriver-BiDi or WebDriver Bidi APIs
methods where possible to ensure future compatibility.
Usage
Generally you should prefer the use of the CDP API over this approach,
but sometimes the syntax is cleaner or significantly more simple.
Limitations include:
It only works for use cases that are limited to setting or getting information;
any actual asynchronous interactions require another implementation
You have to know the exactly correct “magic strings” for domains and keys
It is possible that an update to Chrome will change the required parameters
Each of the Selenium bindings dynamically generates classes and methods for the various CDP domains and features; these are tied to specific versions of Chrome.
While Selenium 4 provides direct access to the Chrome DevTools Protocol (CDP), these
methods will eventually be removed. It is recommended to use the WebDriver Bidi APIs
methods where possible to ensure future compatibility.
Usage
If your use case has been implemented by WebDriver Bidi or
the BiDi API, you should use those implementations instead of this one.
Generally you should prefer this approach over executing with the CDP Endpoint,
especially in Ruby.
Wait for a download to finish before continuing.
Because getting download status requires setting a listener, this cannot be done with a CDP Endpoint implementation.
These examples are currently implemented with CDP, but the same code should work when the functionality is re-implemented with WebDriver-BiDi.
Usage
The following list of APIs will be growing as the Selenium
project works through supporting real world use cases. If there
is additional functionality you’d like to see, please raise a
feature request.
As these examples are re-implemented with the WebDriver-Bidi protocol, they will
be moved to the WebDriver Bidi pages.
Examples
Basic authentication
Some applications make use of browser authentication to secure pages.
It used to be common to handle them in the URL, but browser stopped supporting this.
With BiDi, you can now provide the credentials when necessary
This can be especially useful when executing on a remote server. For example,
whenever you check the visibility of an element, or whenever you use
the classic get attribute method, Selenium is sending the contents of a js file
to the script execution endpoint. These files are each about 50kB, which adds up.
The following list of APIs will be growing as the WebDriver BiDirectional Protocol grows
and browser vendors implement the same.
Additionally, Selenium will try to support real-world use cases that internally use a combination of W3C BiDi protocol APIs.
If there is additional functionality you’d like to see, please raise a
feature request.
2.8.2.1 - Browsing Context
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This section contains the APIs related to browsing context commands.
A reference browsing context is a top-level browsing context.
The API allows to pass the reference browsing context, which is used to create a new window. The implementation is operating system specific.
A reference browsing context is a top-level browsing context.
The API allows to pass the reference browsing context, which is used to create a new tab. The implementation is operating system specific.
Provides a tree of all browsing contexts descending from the parent browsing context, including the parent browsing context upto the depth value passed.
Listen to the JS Exceptions
and register callbacks to process the exception details.
logInspector.onJavaScriptLog(future::complete);driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/bidi/logEntryAdded.html");driver.findElement(By.id("jsException")).click();JavascriptLogEntrylogEntry=future.get(5,TimeUnit.SECONDS);Assertions.assertEquals("Error: Not working",logEntry.getText());
constinspector=awaitLogInspector(driver)awaitinspector.onJavascriptException(function(log){logEntry=log})awaitdriver.get('https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/bidi/logEntryAdded.html')awaitdriver.findElement({id:'jsException'}).click()assert.equal(logEntry.text,'Error: Not working')assert.equal(logEntry.type,'javascript')assert.equal(logEntry.level,'error')
These are classes used to describe what needs to be waited for.
Expected Conditions are used with Explicit Waits.
Instead of defining the block of code to be executed with a lambda, an expected
conditions method can be created to represent common things that get waited on. Some
methods take locators as arguments, others take elements as arguments.
publicclassDriverClash{//thread main (id 1) created this driver
privateWebDriverprotectedDriver=ThreadGuard.protect(newChromeDriver());static{System.setProperty("webdriver.chrome.driver","<Set path to your Chromedriver>");}//Thread-1 (id 24) is calling the same driver causing the clash to happen
Runnabler1=()->{protectedDriver.get("https://selenium.dev");};Threadthr1=newThread(r1);voidrunThreads(){thr1.start();}publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){newDriverClash().runThreads();}}
结果如下所示:
Exception in thread "Thread-1" org.openqa.selenium.WebDriverException:
Thread safety error; this instance of WebDriver was constructed
on thread main (id 1)and is being accessed by thread Thread-1 (id 24)
This is not permitted and *will* cause undefined behaviour
请注意,此类仅适用于 HTML 元素 select 和 option.
这个类将不适用于那些通过 div 或 li
并使用JavaScript遮罩层设计的下拉列表.
类型
选择方法的行为可能会有所不同,
具体取决于正在使用的 <select> 元素的类型.
单选
这是标准的下拉对象,其只能选定一个选项.
<selectname="selectomatic"><optionselected="selected"id="non_multi_option"value="one">One</option><optionvalue="two">Two</option><optionvalue="four">Four</option><optionvalue="still learning how to count, apparently">Still learning how to count, apparently</option></select>
Troubleshooting missing path to driver executable.
Historically, this is the most common error beginning Selenium users get
when trying to run code for the first time:
The path to the driver executable must
be set by the webdriver.chrome.driver system property;
for more information, see https://chromedriver.chromium.org/.
The latest version can be downloaded from https://chromedriver.chromium.org/downloads
The executable chromedriver needs to be available in the path.
The file geckodriver does not exist. The driver can be downloaded at https://github.com/mozilla/geckodriver/releases"
Unable to locate the chromedriver executable;
Likely cause
Through WebDriver, Selenium supports all major browsers.
In order to drive the requested browser, Selenium needs to
send commands to it via an executable driver.
This error means the necessary driver could not be
found by any of the means Selenium attempts to use.
Possible solutions
There are several ways to ensure Selenium gets the driver it needs.
Use the latest version of Selenium
As of Selenium 4.6, Selenium downloads the correct driver for you.
You shouldn’t need to do anything. If you are using the latest version
of Selenium and you are getting an error,
please turn on logging
and file a bug report with that information.
If you want to read more information about how Selenium manages driver downloads for you,
you can read about the Selenium Manager.
This is a flexible option to change location of drivers without having to update your code,
and will work on multiple machines without requiring that each machine put the
drivers in the same place.
You can either place the drivers in a directory that is already listed in PATH,
or you can place them in a directory and add it to PATH.
To see what directories are already on PATH, open a Terminal and execute:
echo$PATH
If the location to your driver is not already in a directory listed,
you can add a new directory to PATH:
You can test if it has been added correctly by checking the version of the driver:
chromedriver --version
To see what directories are already on PATH, open a Command Prompt and execute:
echo %PATH%
If the location to your driver is not already in a directory listed,
you can add a new directory to PATH:
setx PATH "%PATH%;C:\WebDriver\bin"
You can test if it has been added correctly by checking the version of the driver:
chromedriver.exe --version
Specify the location of the driver
If you cannot upgrade to the latest version of Selenium, you
do not want Selenium to download drivers for you, and you can’t figure
out the environment variables, you can specify the location of the driver in the Service object.
Specifying the location in the code itself has the advantage of not needing
to figure out Environment Variables on your system, but has the drawback of
making the code less flexible.
Driver management libraries
Before Selenium managed drivers itself, other projects were created to
do so for you.
If you can’t use Selenium Manager because you are using
an older version of Selenium (please upgrade),
or need an advanced feature not yet implemented by Selenium Manager,
you might try one of these tools to keep your drivers automatically updated:
Python logs are typically created per module. You can match all submodules by referencing the top
level module. So to work with all loggers in selenium module, you can do this:
.NET does not currently have a Logging implementation
If you want to see as much debugging as possible in all the classes,
you can turn on debugging globally in Ruby by setting $DEBUG = true.
For more fine-tuned control, Ruby Selenium created its own Logger class to wrap the default Logger class.
This implementation provides some interesting additional features.
Obtain the logger directly from the #loggerclass method on the Selenium::WebDriver module:
Things get complicated when you use PyTest, though. By default, PyTest hides logging unless the test
fails. You need to set 3 things to get PyTest to display logs on passing tests.
To always output logs with PyTest you need to run with additional arguments.
First, -s to prevent PyTest from capturing the console.
Second, -p no:logging, which allows you to override the default PyTest logging settings so logs can
be displayed regardless of errors.
So you need to set these flags in your IDE, or run PyTest on command line like:
pytest -s -p no:logging
Finally, since you turned off logging in the arguments above, you now need to add configuration to
turn it back on:
logging.basicConfig(level=logging.WARN)
.NET does not currently have a Logging implementation
Ruby logger has 5 logger levels: :debug, :info, :warn, :error, :fatal.
As of Selenium v4.9.1, The default is :info.
.NET does not currently have a Logging implementation
Ruby’s logger allows you to opt in (“allow”) or opt out (“ignore”) of log messages based on their IDs.
Everything that Selenium logs includes an ID. You can also turn on or off all deprecation notices by
using :deprecations.
These methods accept one or more symbols or an array of symbols:
<dependencies><!-- more dependencies ... --><dependency><groupId>org.seleniumhq.selenium</groupId><artifactId>selenium-java</artifactId><version>3.141.59</version></dependency><!-- more dependencies ... --></dependencies>
After
<dependencies><!-- more dependencies ... --><dependency><groupId>org.seleniumhq.selenium</groupId><artifactId>selenium-java</artifactId><version>4.4.0</version></dependency><!-- more dependencies ... --></dependencies>
ChromeOptionschromeOptions=newChromeOptions();chromeOptions.setCapability("browserVersion","100");chromeOptions.setCapability("platformName","Windows");// Showing a test name instead of the session id in the Grid UI
chromeOptions.setCapability("se:name","My simple test");// Other type of metadata can be seen in the Grid UI by clicking on the
// session info or via GraphQL
chromeOptions.setCapability("se:sampleMetadata","Sample metadata value");WebDriverdriver=newRemoteWebDriver(newURL("http://gridUrl:4444"),chromeOptions);driver.get("http://www.google.com");driver.quit();
Page being translated from
English to Chinese. Do you speak Chinese? Help us to translate
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Different sections are available to configure a Grid. Each section has options can be configured
through command line arguments.
A complete description of the component to section mapping can be seen below.
Note that this documentation could be outdated if an option was modified or added
but has not been documented yet. In case you bump into this situation, please check
the “Config help” section and feel free to send us a
pull request updating this page.
Full class name of non-default distributor implementation
--distributor-port
int
5553
Port on which the distributor is listening.
--reject-unsupported-caps
boolean
false
Allow the Distributor to reject a request immediately if the Grid does not support the requested capability. Rejecting requests immediately is suitable for a Grid setup that does not spin up Nodes on demand.
--slot-matcher
string
org.openqa.selenium.grid.data.DefaultSlotMatcher
Full class name of non-default slot matcher to use. This is used to determine whether a Node can support a particular session.
Docker configs which map image name to stereotype capabilities (example `-D selenium/standalone-firefox:latest ‘{“browserName”: “firefox”}’)
--docker-devices
string[]
/dev/kvm:/dev/kvm
Exposes devices to a container. Each device mapping declaration must have at least the path of the device in both host and container separated by a colon like in this example: /device/path/in/host:/device/path/in/container
--docker-host
string
localhost
Host name where the Docker daemon is running
--docker-port
int
2375
Port where the Docker daemon is running
--docker-url
string
http://localhost:2375
URL for connecting to the Docker daemon
--docker-video-image
string
selenium/video:latest
Docker image to be used when video recording is enabled
Events
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--bind-bus
boolean
false
Whether the connection string should be bound or connected. When true, the component will be bound to the Event Bus (as in the Event Bus will also be started by the component, typically by the Distributor and the Hub). When false, the component will connect to the Event Bus.
--events-implementation
string
org.openqa.selenium.events.zeromq.ZeroMqEventBus
Full class name of non-default event bus implementation
--publish-events
string
tcp://*:4442
Connection string for publishing events to the event bus
--subscribe-events
string
tcp://*:4443
Connection string for subscribing to events from the event bus
Logging
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--http-logs
boolean
false
Enable http logging. Tracing should be enabled to log http logs.
--log-encoding
string
UTF-8
Log encoding
--log
string
Windows path example : '\path\to\file\gridlog.log' or 'C:\path\path\to\file\gridlog.log'
Linux/Unix/MacOS path example : '/path/to/file/gridlog.log'
File to write out logs. Ensure the file path is compatible with the operating system’s file path.
Full classname of non-default Node implementation. This is used to manage a session’s lifecycle.
--grid-url
string
https://grid.example.com
Public URL of the Grid as a whole (typically the address of the Hub or the Router)
--heartbeat-period
int
60
How often, in seconds, will the Node send heartbeat events to the Distributor to inform it that the Node is up.
--max-sessions
int
8
Maximum number of concurrent sessions. Default value is the number of available processors.
--override-max-sessions
boolean
false
The # of available processors is the recommended max sessions value (1 browser session per processor). Setting this flag to true allows the recommended max value to be overwritten. Session stability and reliability might suffer as the host could run out of resources.
--register-cycle
int
10
How often, in seconds, the Node will try to register itself for the first time to the Distributor.
--register-period
int
120
How long, in seconds, will the Node try to register to the Distributor for the first time. After this period is completed, the Node will not attempt to register again.
--session-timeout
int
300
Let X be the session-timeout in seconds. The Node will automatically kill a session that has not had any activity in the last X seconds. This will release the slot for other tests.
--vnc-env-var
string
START_XVFB
Environment variable to check in order to determine if a vnc stream is available or not.
--no-vnc-port
int
7900
If VNC is available, sets the port where the local noVNC stream can be obtained
--drain-after-session-count
int
1
Drain and shutdown the Node after X sessions have been executed. Useful for environments like Kubernetes. A value higher than zero enables this feature.
--hub
string
http://localhost:4444
The address of the Hub in a Hub-and-Node configuration. Can be a hostname or IP address (hostname), in which case the Hub will be assumed to be http://hostname:4444, the --grid-url will be the same --publish-events will be tcp://hostname:4442 and --subscribe-events will be tcp://hostname:4443. If hostname contains a port number, that will be used for --grid-url but the URIs for the event bus will remain the same. Any of these default values may be overridden but setting the correct flags. If the hostname has a protocol (such as https) that will be used too.
--enable-cdp
boolean
true
Enable CDP proxying in Grid. A Grid admin can disable CDP if the network doesnot allow websockets. True by default.
--enable-managed-downloads
boolean
false
This causes the Node to auto manage files downloaded for a given session on the Node.
--selenium-manager
boolean
false
When drivers are not available on the current system, use Selenium Manager. False by default.
Relay
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--service-url
string
http://localhost:4723
URL for connecting to the service that supports WebDriver commands like an Appium server or a cloud service.
--service-host
string
localhost
Host name where the service that supports WebDriver commands is running
--service-port
int
4723
Port where the service that supports WebDriver commands is running
--service-status-endpoint
string
/status
Optional, endpoint to query the WebDriver service status, an HTTP 200 response is expected
Configuration for the service where calls will be relayed to. It is recommended to provide this type of configuration through a toml config file to improve readability.
Router
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--password
string
myStrongPassword
Password clients must use to connect to the server. Both this and the username need to be set in order to be used.
--username
string
admin
User name clients must use to connect to the server. Both this and the password need to be set in order to be used.
--sub-path
string
my_company/selenium_grid
A sub-path that should be considered for all user facing routes on the Hub/Router/Standalone.
Server
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--allow-cors
boolean
true
Whether the Selenium server should allow web browser connections from any host
--host
string
localhost
Server IP or hostname: usually determined automatically.
--bind-host
boolean
true
Whether the server should bind to the host address/name, or only use it to" report its reachable url. Helpful in complex network topologies where the server cannot report itself with the current IP/hostname but rather an external IP or hostname (e.g. inside a Docker container)
--https-certificate
path
/path/to/cert.pem
Server certificate for https. Get more detailed information by running “java -jar selenium-server.jar info security”
--https-private-key
path
/path/to/key.pkcs8
Private key for https. Get more detailed information by running “java -jar selenium-server.jar info security”
--max-threads
int
24
Maximum number of listener threads. Default value is: (available processors) * 3.
--port
int
4444
Port to listen on. There is no default as this parameter is used by different components, for example, Router/Hub/Standalone will use 4444 and Node will use 5555.
SessionQueue
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--sessionqueue
uri
http://localhost:1237
Address of the session queue server.
-sessionqueue-host
string
localhost
Host on which the session queue server is listening.
--sessionqueue-port
int
1234
Port on which the session queue server is listening.
--session-request-timeout
int
300
Timeout in seconds. A new incoming session request is added to the queue. Requests sitting in the queue for longer than the configured time will timeout.
--session-retry-interval
int
5
Retry interval in seconds. If all slots are busy, new session request will be retried after the given interval.
Sessions
Option
Type
Value/Example
Description
--sessions
uri
http://localhost:1234
Address of the session map server.
--sessions-host
string
localhost
Host on which the session map server is listening.
--sessions-port
int
1234
Port on which the session map server is listening.
Configuration examples
All the options mentioned above can be used when starting the Grid components. They are a good
way of exploring the Grid options, and trying out values to find a suitable configuration.
We recommend the use of Toml files to configure a Grid.
Configuration files improve readability, and you can also check them in source control.
When needed, you can combine a Toml file configuration with CLI arguments.
Command-line flags
To pass config options as command-line flags, identify the valid options for the component
and follow the template below.
java -jar selenium-server-<version>.jar <component> --<option> value
The Grid infrastructure will try to match a session request with "se:downloadsEnabled" against ONLY those nodes which were started with --enable-managed-downloads true
If a session is matched, then the Node automatically sets the required capabilities to let the browser know, as to where should a file be downloaded.
The Node now allows a user to:
List all the files that were downloaded for a specific session and
Retrieve a specific file from the list of files.
The directory into which files were downloaded for a specific session gets automatically cleaned up when the session ends (or) timesout due to inactivity.
Note: Currently this capability is ONLY supported on:
Edge
Firefox and
Chrome browser
Listing files that can be downloaded for current session:
The endpoint to GET from is /session/<sessionId>/se/files.
The session needs to be active in order for the command to work.
contents - Base64 encoded zipped contents of the file.
The file contents are Base64 encoded and they need to be unzipped.
List files that can be downloaded
The below mentioned curl example can be used to list all the files that were downloaded by the current session in the Node, and which can be retrieved locally.
curl -X GET "http://localhost:4444/session/90c0149a-2e75-424d-857a-e78734943d4c/se/files"
Below is an example in Java that does the following:
Sets the capability to indicate that the test requires automatic managing of downloaded files.
Triggers a file download via a browser.
Lists the files that are available for retrieval from the remote node (These are essentially files that were downloaded in the current session)
Picks one file and downloads the file from the remote node to the local machine.
importcom.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;importorg.openqa.selenium.By;importorg.openqa.selenium.io.Zip;importorg.openqa.selenium.json.Json;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.RemoteWebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpClient;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpRequest;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpResponse;importjava.io.File;importjava.net.URL;importjava.nio.file.Files;importjava.util.List;importjava.util.Map;importjava.util.Optional;importjava.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;import staticorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.Contents.asJson;import staticorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.Contents.string;import staticorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpMethod.GET;import staticorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpMethod.POST;publicclassDownloadsSample{publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args)throwsException{// Assuming the Grid is running locally.
URLgridUrl=newURL("http://localhost:4444");ChromeOptionsoptions=newChromeOptions();options.setCapability("se:downloadsEnabled",true);RemoteWebDriverdriver=newRemoteWebDriver(gridUrl,options);try{demoFileDownloads(driver,gridUrl);}finally{driver.quit();}}privatestaticvoiddemoFileDownloads(RemoteWebDriverdriver,URLgridUrl)throwsException{driver.get("https://www.selenium.dev/selenium/web/downloads/download.html");// Download the two available files on the page
driver.findElement(By.id("file-1")).click();driver.findElement(By.id("file-2")).click();// The download happens in a remote Node, which makes it difficult to know when the file
// has been completely downloaded. For demonstration purposes, this example uses a
// 10-second sleep which should be enough time for a file to be downloaded.
// We strongly recommend to avoid hardcoded sleeps, and ideally, to modify your
// application under test, so it offers a way to know when the file has been completely
// downloaded.
TimeUnit.SECONDS.sleep(10);//This is the endpoint which will provide us with list of files to download and also to
//let us download a specific file.
StringdownloadsEndpoint=String.format("/session/%s/se/files",driver.getSessionId());StringfileToDownload;try(HttpClientclient=HttpClient.Factory.createDefault().createClient(gridUrl)){// To list all files that are were downloaded on the remote node for the current session
// we trigger GET request.
HttpRequestrequest=newHttpRequest(GET,downloadsEndpoint);HttpResponseresponse=client.execute(request);Map<String,Object>jsonResponse=newJson().toType(string(response),Json.MAP_TYPE);@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")Map<String,Object>value=(Map<String,Object>)jsonResponse.get("value");@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")List<String>names=(List<String>)value.get("names");// Let's say there were "n" files downloaded for the current session, we would like
// to retrieve ONLY the first file.
fileToDownload=names.get(0);}// Now, let's download the file
try(HttpClientclient=HttpClient.Factory.createDefault().createClient(gridUrl)){// To retrieve a specific file from one or more files that were downloaded by the current session
// on a remote node, we use a POST request.
HttpRequestrequest=newHttpRequest(POST,downloadsEndpoint);request.setContent(asJson(ImmutableMap.of("name",fileToDownload)));HttpResponseresponse=client.execute(request);Map<String,Object>jsonResponse=newJson().toType(string(response),Json.MAP_TYPE);@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")Map<String,Object>value=(Map<String,Object>)jsonResponse.get("value");// The returned map would contain 2 keys,
// filename - This represents the name of the file (same as what was provided by the test)
// contents - Base64 encoded String which contains the zipped file.
StringzippedContents=value.get("contents").toString();// The file contents would always be a zip file and has to be unzipped.
FiledownloadDir=Zip.unzipToTempDir(zippedContents,"download","");// Read the file contents
FiledownloadedFile=Optional.ofNullable(downloadDir.listFiles()).orElse(newFile[]{})[0];StringfileContent=String.join("",Files.readAllLines(downloadedFile.toPath()));System.out.println("The file which was "+"downloaded in the node is now available in the directory: "+downloadDir.getAbsolutePath()+" and has the contents: "+fileContent);}}}
[node]detect-drivers=falsemax-sessions=2[docker]configs=["selenium/standalone-chrome:93.0","{\"browserName\": \"chrome\", \"browserVersion\": \"91\"}","selenium/standalone-firefox:92.0","{\"browserName\": \"firefox\", \"browserVersion\": \"92\"}"]#Optionally define all device files that should be mapped to docker containers#devices = [# "/dev/kvm:/dev/kvm"#]url="http://localhost:2375"video-image="selenium/video:latest"
[node]detect-drivers=false[relay]# Default Appium/Cloud server endpointurl="http://localhost:4723/wd/hub"status-endpoint="/status"# Stereotypes supported by the service. The initial number is "max-sessions", and will allocate # that many test slots to that particular configurationconfigs=["5","{\"browserName\": \"chrome\", \"platformName\": \"android\", \"appium:platformVersion\": \"11\"}"]
The Node can be instructed to manage downloads automatically. This will cause the Node to save all files that were downloaded for a particular session into a temp directory, which can later be retrieved from the node.
To turn this capability on, use the below configuration:
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The Grid is designed as a set of components that all fulfill a role in
maintaining the Grid. It can seem quite complicated, but hopefully
this document can help clear up any confusion.
The Key Components
The main components of the Grid are:
Event Bus
Used for sending messages which may be received asynchronously
between the other components.
New Session Queue
Maintains a list of incoming sessions which have yet to be
assigned to a Node by the Distributor.
Distributor
Responsible for maintaining a model of the available locations in
the Grid where a session may run (known as "slots") and taking any
incoming new
session requests and assigning them to a slot.
Node
Runs a WebDriver
session. Each session is assigned to a slot, and each node has
one or more slots.
Session Map
Maintains a mapping between the session
ID and the address of the Node the session is running on.
Router
Acts as the front-end of the Grid. This is the only part of the
Grid which may be exposed to the wider Web (though we strongly
caution against it). This routes incoming requests to either the
New Session Queue or the Node on which the session is running.
While discussing the Grid, there are some other useful concepts to
keep in mind:
A slot is the place where a session can run.
Each slot has a stereotype. This is the minimal set of
capabilities that a new session session request must match
before the Distributor will send that request to the Node owning
the slot.
The Grid Model is how the Distributor tracks the state of the
Grid. As the name suggests, this may sometimes fall out of sync
with reality (perhaps because the Distributor has only just
started). It is used in preference to querying each Node so that
the Distributor can quickly assign a slot to a New Session request.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Calls
There are two main communication mechanisms used within the Grid:
Synchronous “REST-ish” JSON over HTTP requests.
Asynchronous events sent to the Event Bus.
How do we pick which communication mechanism to use? After all, we
could model the entire Grid in an event-based way, and it would work
out just fine.
The answer is that if the action being performed is synchronous
(eg. most WebDriver calls), or if missing the response would be
problematic, the Grid uses a synchronous call. If, instead, we want to
broadcast information to anyone who’s interested, or if missing the
response doesn’t matter, then we prefer to use the event bus.
One interesting thing to note is that the async calls are more
decoupled from their listeners than the synchronous calls are.
Start Up Sequence and Dependencies Between Components
Although the Grid is designed to allow components to start up in any
order, conceptually the order in which components starts is:
The Event Bus and Session Map start first. These have no other
dependencies, not even on each other, and so are safe to start in
parallel.
The Session Queue starts next.
It is now possible to start the Distributor. This will periodically
connect to the Session Queue and poll for jobs, though this polling
might be initiated either by an event (that a New Session has been
added to the queue) or at regular intervals.
The Router(s) can be started. New Session requests will be directed
to the Session Queue, and the Distributor will attempt to find a
slot to run the session on.
We are now able to start a Node. See below for details about how
the Node is registered with the Grid. Once registration is
complete, the Grid is ready to serve traffic.
You can picture the dependencies between components this way, where a
“✅” indicates that there is a synchronous dependency between the
components.
Event Bus
Distributor
Node
Router
Session Map
Session Queue
Event Bus
X
Distributor
✅
X
✅
✅
Node
✅
X
Router
✅
X
✅
Session Map
X
Session Queue
✅
X
Node Registration
The process of registering a new Node to the Grid is lightweight.
When the Node starts, it should emit a “heart beat” event on a
regular basis. This heartbeat contains the node status.
The Distributor listens for the heart beat events. When it sees
one, it attempts to GET the /status endpoint of the Node. It
is from this information that the Grid is set up.
The Distributor will use the same /status endpoint to check the Node
on a regular basis, but the Node should continue sending heart beat
events even after started so that a Distributor without a persistent
store of the Grid state can be restarted and will (eventually) be up
to date and correct.
The Node Status Object
The Node Status is a JSON blob with the following fields:
Name
Type
Description
availability
string
A string which is one of up, draining, or down. The important one is draining, which indicates that no new sessions should be sent to the Node, and once the last session on it closes, the Node will exit or restart.
externalUrl
string
The URI that the other components in the Grid should connect to.
lastSessionCreated
integer
The epoch timestamp of when the last session was created on this Node. The Distributor will attempt to send new sessions to the Node that has been idle longest if all other things are equal.
maxSessionCount
integer
Although a session count can be inferred by counting the number of available slots, this integer value is used to determine the maximum number of sessions that should be running simultaneously on the Node before it is considered “full”.
nodeId
string
A UUID used to identify this instance of the Node.
osInfo
object
An object with arch, name, and version fields. This is used by the Grid UI and the GraphQL queries.
slots
array
An array of Slot objects (described below)
version
string
The version of the Node (for Selenium, this will match the Selenium version number)
It is recommended to put values in all fields.
The Slot Object
The Slot object represents a single slot within a Node. A “slot” is
where a single session may be run. It is possible that a Node will
have more slots than it can run concurrently. For example, a node may
be able to run up 10 sessions, but they could be any combination of
Chrome, Edge, or Firefox; in this case, the Node would indicate a “max
session count” of 10, and then also say it has 10 slots for Chrome, 10
for Edge, and 10 for Firefox.
Name
Type
Description
id
string
UUID to refer to the slot
lastStarted
string
When the slot last had a session started, in ISO-8601 format
stereotype
object
The minimal set of capabilities this slot will match against. A minimal example is {"browserName": "firefox"}
session
object
The Session object (see below)
The Session Object
This represents a running session within a slot
Name
Type
Description
capabilities
object
The actual capabilities provided by the session. Will match the return value from the new session command
startTime
string
The start time of the session in ISO-8601 format
stereotype
object
The minimal set of capabilities this slot will match against. A minimal example is {"browserName": "firefox"}
uri
string
The URI used by the Node to communicate with the session
3.6 - 高级功能
要获得高级功能的所有详细信息, 了解其工作原理, 以及如何设置自己的功能, 请浏览以下部分.
3.6.1 - 可观测性
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Grid aids in scaling and distributing tests by executing tests on various browser and operating system combinations.
Observability
Observability has three pillars: traces, metrics and logs. Since Selenium Grid 4 is designed to be fully distributed, observability will make it easier to understand and debug the internals.
Distributed tracing
A single request or transaction spans multiple services and components. Tracing tracks the request lifecycle as each service executes the request. It is useful in debugging in an error scenario.
Some key terms used in tracing context are:
Trace
Tracing allows one to trace a request through multiple services, starting from its origin to its final destination. This request’s journey helps in debugging, monitoring the end-to-end flow, and identifying failures. A trace depicts the end-to-end request flow. Each trace has a unique id as its identifier.
Span
Each trace is made up of timed operations called spans. A span has a start and end time and it represents operations done by a service. The granularity of span depends on how it is instrumented. Each span has a unique identifier. All spans within a trace have the same trace id.
Span Attributes
Span attributes are key-value pairs which provide additional information about each span.
Events
Events are timed-stamped logs within a span. They provide additional context to the existing spans. Events also contain key-value pairs as event attributes.
Event logging
Logging is essential to debug an application. Logging is often done in a human-readable format. But for machines to search and analyze the logs, it has to have a well-defined format. Structured logging is a common practice of recording logs consistently in a fixed format. It commonly contains fields like:
Timestamp
Logging level
Logger class
Log message (This is further broken down into fields relevant to the operation where the log was recorded)
Logs and events are closely related. Events encapsulate all the possible information available to do a single unit of work. Logs are essentially subsets of an event. At the crux, both aid in debugging.
Refer following resources for detailed understanding:
Selenium server is instrumented with tracing using OpenTelemetry. Every request to the server is traced from start to end. Each trace consists of a series of spans as a request is executed within the server.
Most spans in the Selenium server consist of two events:
Normal event - records all information about a unit of work and marks successful completion of the work.
Error event - records all information till the error occurs and then records the error information. Marks an exception event.
All spans, events and their respective attributes are part of a trace. Tracing works while running the server in all of the above-mentioned modes.
By default, tracing is enabled in the Selenium server. Selenium server exports the traces via two exporters:
Console - Logs all traces and their included spans at FINE level. By default, Selenium server prints logs at INFO level and above.
The log-level flag can be used to pass a logging level of choice while running the Selenium Grid jar/s.
java -jar selenium-server-4.0.0-<selenium-version>.jar standalone --log-level FINE
Jaeger UI - OpenTelemetry provides the APIs and SDKs to instrument traces in the code. Whereas Jaeger is a tracing backend, that aids in collecting the tracing telemetry data and providing querying, filtering and visualizing features for the data.
Detailed instructions of visualizing traces using Jaeger UI can be obtained by running the command :
java -jar selenium-server-4.0.0-<selenium-version>.jar info tracing
Tracing has to be enabled for event logging as well, even if one does not wish to export traces to visualize them. By default, tracing is enabled. No additional parameters need to be passed to see logs on the console.
All events within a span are logged at FINE level. Error events are logged at WARN level.
All event logs have the following fields :
Field
Field value
Description
Event time
eventId
Timestamp of the event record in epoch nanoseconds.
Trace Id
tracedId
Each trace is uniquely identified by a trace id.
Span Id
spanId
Each span within a trace is uniquely identified by a span id.
Span Kind
spanKind
Span kind is a property of span indicating the type of span. It helps in understanding the nature of the unit of work done by the Span.
Event name
eventName
This maps to the log message.
Event attributes
eventAttributes
This forms the crux of the event logs, based on the operation executed, it has JSON formatted key-value pairs. This also includes a handler class attribute, to show the logger class.
New Session Request Queue holds the new session requests.
To get the current requests in the queue, use the cURL command enlisted below.
The response returns the total number of requests in the queue and the request payloads.
新会话请求队列保存新会话请求.
要获取队列中的当前请求,
请使用下面列出的cURL命令.
响应会返回队列中的请求总数以及请求内容.
cURL --request GET 'http://localhost:4444/se/grid/newsessionqueue/queue'
在完全分布式模式下,
队列URL是新会话队列服务器的地址.
cURL --request GET 'http://localhost:5559/se/grid/newsessionqueue/queue'
3.6.4 - Customizing a Node
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How to customize a Node
There are times when we would like a Node to be customized to our needs.
For e.g., we may like to do some additional setup before a session begins execution and some clean-up after a session runs to completion.
Following steps can be followed for this:
Create a class that extends org.openqa.selenium.grid.node.Node
Add a static method (this will be our factory method) to the newly created class whose signature looks like this:
public static Node create(Config config). Here:
Node is of type org.openqa.selenium.grid.node.Node
Config is of type org.openqa.selenium.grid.config.Config
Within this factory method, include logic for creating your new Class.
To wire in this new customized logic into the hub, start the node and pass in the fully qualified class name of the above class to the argument --node-implementation
Let’s see an example of all this:
Custom Node as an uber jar
Create a sample project using your favourite build tool (Maven|Gradle).
Note: If you are using Maven as a build tool, please prefer using maven-shade-plugin instead of maven-assembly-plugin because maven-assembly plugin seems to have issues with being able to merge multiple Service Provider Interface files (META-INF/services)
Custom Node as a regular jar
Create a sample project using your favourite build tool (Maven|Gradle).
Below is a sample that just prints some messages on to the console whenever there’s an activity of interest (session created, session deleted, a webdriver command executed etc.,) on the Node.
Sample customized node
packageorg.seleniumhq.samples;importjava.net.URI;importjava.util.UUID;importorg.openqa.selenium.Capabilities;importorg.openqa.selenium.NoSuchSessionException;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriverException;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.config.Config;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.data.CreateSessionRequest;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.data.CreateSessionResponse;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.data.NodeId;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.data.NodeStatus;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.data.Session;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.log.LoggingOptions;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.node.HealthCheck;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.node.Node;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.node.local.LocalNodeFactory;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.security.Secret;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.security.SecretOptions;importorg.openqa.selenium.grid.server.BaseServerOptions;importorg.openqa.selenium.internal.Either;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.SessionId;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpRequest;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.http.HttpResponse;importorg.openqa.selenium.remote.tracing.Tracer;publicclassDecoratedLoggingNodeextendsNode{privateNodenode;protectedDecoratedLoggingNode(Tracertracer,URIuri,SecretregistrationSecret){super(tracer,newNodeId(UUID.randomUUID()),uri,registrationSecret);}publicstaticNodecreate(Configconfig){LoggingOptionsloggingOptions=newLoggingOptions(config);BaseServerOptionsserverOptions=newBaseServerOptions(config);URIuri=serverOptions.getExternalUri();SecretOptionssecretOptions=newSecretOptions(config);// Refer to the foot notes for additional context on this line.
Nodenode=LocalNodeFactory.create(config);DecoratedLoggingNodewrapper=newDecoratedLoggingNode(loggingOptions.getTracer(),uri,secretOptions.getRegistrationSecret());wrapper.node=node;returnwrapper;}@OverridepublicEither<WebDriverException,CreateSessionResponse>newSession(CreateSessionRequestsessionRequest){System.out.println("Before newSession()");try{returnthis.node.newSession(sessionRequest);}finally{System.out.println("After newSession()");}}@OverridepublicHttpResponseexecuteWebDriverCommand(HttpRequestreq){try{System.out.println("Before executeWebDriverCommand(): "+req.getUri());returnnode.executeWebDriverCommand(req);}finally{System.out.println("After executeWebDriverCommand()");}}@OverridepublicSessiongetSession(SessionIdid)throwsNoSuchSessionException{try{System.out.println("Before getSession()");returnnode.getSession(id);}finally{System.out.println("After getSession()");}}@OverridepublicHttpResponseuploadFile(HttpRequestreq,SessionIdid){try{System.out.println("Before uploadFile()");returnnode.uploadFile(req,id);}finally{System.out.println("After uploadFile()");}}@Overridepublicvoidstop(SessionIdid)throwsNoSuchSessionException{try{System.out.println("Before stop()");node.stop(id);}finally{System.out.println("After stop()");}}@OverridepublicbooleanisSessionOwner(SessionIdid){try{System.out.println("Before isSessionOwner()");returnnode.isSessionOwner(id);}finally{System.out.println("After isSessionOwner()");}}@OverridepublicbooleanisSupporting(Capabilitiescapabilities){try{System.out.println("Before isSupporting");returnnode.isSupporting(capabilities);}finally{System.out.println("After isSupporting()");}}@OverridepublicNodeStatusgetStatus(){try{System.out.println("Before getStatus()");returnnode.getStatus();}finally{System.out.println("After getStatus()");}}@OverridepublicHealthCheckgetHealthCheck(){try{System.out.println("Before getHealthCheck()");returnnode.getHealthCheck();}finally{System.out.println("After getHealthCheck()");}}@Overridepublicvoiddrain(){try{System.out.println("Before drain()");node.drain();}finally{System.out.println("After drain()");}}@OverridepublicbooleanisReady(){try{System.out.println("Before isReady()");returnnode.isReady();}finally{System.out.println("After isReady()");}}}
Foot Notes:
In the above example, the line Node node = LocalNodeFactory.create(config); explicitly creates a LocalNode.
There are basically 2 types of user facing implementations of org.openqa.selenium.grid.node.Node available.
These classes are good starting points to learn how to build a custom Node and also to learn the internals of a Node.
org.openqa.selenium.grid.node.local.LocalNode - Used to represent a long running Node and is the default implementation that gets wired in when you start a node.
It can be created by calling LocalNodeFactory.create(config);, where:
LocalNodeFactory belongs to org.openqa.selenium.grid.node.local
Config belongs to org.openqa.selenium.grid.config
org.openqa.selenium.grid.node.k8s.OneShotNode - This is a special reference implementation wherein the Node gracefully shuts itself down after servicing one test session. This class is currently not available as part of any pre-built maven artifact.
You can refer to the source code here to understand its internals.
Selenium Grid allows you to persist information related to currently running sessions into an external data store.
The external data store could be backed by your favourite database (or) Redis Cache system.
Setup
Coursier - As a dependency resolver, so that we can download maven artifacts on the fly and make them available in our classpath
Docker - To manage our PostGreSQL/Redis docker containers.
Database backed Session Map
For the sake of this illustration, we are going to work with PostGreSQL database.
We will spin off a PostGreSQL database as a docker container using a docker compose file.
Steps
You can skip this step if you already have a PostGreSQL database instance available at your disposal.
Create a sql file named init.sql with the below contents:
We can now start our database container by running:
docker-compose up -d
Our database name is selenium_sessions with its username and password set to seluser
If you are working with an already running PostGreSQL DB instance, then you just need to create a database named selenium_sessions and the table sessions_map using the above mentioned SQL statement.
Create a Selenium Grid configuration file named sessions.toml with the below contents:
At this point the current directory should contain the following files:
docker-compose.yml
init.sql
sessions.toml
distributed.sh
You can now spawn the Grid by running distributed.sh shell script and quickly run a test. You will notice that the Grid now stores session information into the PostGreSQL database.
In the line which spawns a SessionMap on a machine:
At this point the current directory should contain the following files:
docker-compose.yml
sessions.toml
distributed.sh
You can now spawn the Grid by running distributed.sh shell script and quickly run a test. You will notice that the Grid now stores session information into the Redis instance. You can perhaps make use of a Redis GUI such as TablePlus to see them (Make sure that you have setup a debug point in your test, because the values will get deleted as soon as the test runs to completion).
In the line which spawns a SessionMap on a machine:
We use the W3C WebDriver protocol to communicate with a local instance of an HTTP server. This greatly simplifies the implementation of the language-specific code, and minimzes the number of entry points into the C++ DLL that must be called using a native-code interop technology such as JNA, ctypes, pinvoke or DL.
Memory Management
The IE driver utilizes the Active Template Library (ATL) to take advantage of its implementation of smart pointers to COM objects. This makes reference counting and cleanup of COM objects much easier.
Why Do We Require Protected Mode Settings Changes?
IE 7 on Windows Vista introduced the concept of Protected Mode, which allows for some measure of protection to the underlying Windows OS when browsing. The problem is that when you manipulate an instance of IE via COM, and you navigate to a page that would cause a transition into or out of Protected Mode, IE requires that another browser session be created. This will orphan the COM object of the previous session, not allowing you to control it any longer.
In IE 7, this will usually manifest itself as a new top-level browser window; in IE 8, a new IExplore.exe process will be created, but it will usually (not always!) seamlessly attach it to the existing IE top-level frame window. Any browser automation framework that drives IE externally (as opposed to using a WebBrowser control) will run into these problems.
In order to work around that problem, we dictate that to work with IE, all zones must have the same Protected Mode setting. As long as it’s on for all zones, or off for all zones, we can prevent the transistions to different Protected Mode zones that would invalidate our browser object. It also allows users to continue to run with UAC turned on, and to run securely in the browser if they set Protected Mode “on” for all zones.
In earlier releases of the IE driver, if the user’s Protected Mode settings were not correctly set, we would launch IE, and the process would simply hang until the HTTP request timed out. This was suboptimal, as it gave no indication what needed to be set. Erring on the side of caution, we do not modify the user’s Protected Mode settings. Current versions, however check that the Protected Mode settings are properly set, and will return an error response if they are not.
There are two ways that we could simulate keyboard and mouse input. The first way, which is used in parts of webdriver, is to synthesize events on the DOM. This has a number of drawbacks, since each browser (and version of a browser) has its own unique quirks; to model each of these is a demanding task, and impossible to get completely right (for example, it’s hard to tell what window.selection should be and this is a read-only property on some browsers) The alternative approach is to synthesize keyboard and mouse input at the OS level, ideally without stealing focus from the user (who tends to be doing other things on their computer as long-running webdriver tests run)
The code for doing this is in interactions.cpp The key thing to note here is that we use PostMessages to push window events on to the message queue of the IE instance. Typing, in particular, is interesting: we only send the “keydown” and “keyup” messages. The “keypress” event is created if necessary by IE’s internal event processing. Because the key press event is not always generated (for example, not every character is printable, and if the default event bubbling is cancelled, listeners don’t see the key press event) we send a “probe” event in after the key down. Once we see that this has been processed, we know that the key press event is on the stack of events to be processed, and that it is safe to send the key up event. If this was not done, it is possible for events to fire in the wrong order, which is definitely sub-optimal.
Working On the InternetExplorerDriver
Currently, there are tests that will run for the InternetExplorerDriver in all languages (Java, C#, Python, and Ruby), so you should be able to test your changes to the native code no matter what language you’re comfortable working in from the client side. For working on the C++ code, you’ll need Visual Studio 2010 Professional or higher. Unfortunately, the C++ code of the driver uses ATL to ease the pain of working with COM objects, and ATL is not supplied with Visual C++ 2010 Express Edition. If you’re using Eclipse, the process for making and testing modifications is:
Edit the C++ code in VS.
Build the code to ensure that it compiles
Do a complete rebuild when you are ready to run a test. This will cause the created DLL to be copied to the right place to allow its use in Eclipse
Load Eclipse (or some other IDE, such as Idea)
Edit the SingleTestSuite so that it is usingDriver(IE)
Create a JUnit run configuration that uses the “webdriver-internet-explorer” project. If you don’t do this, the test won’t work at all, and there will be a somewhat cryptic error message on the console.
Once the basic setup is done, you can start working on the code pretty quickly. You can attach to the process you execute your code from using Visual Studio (from the Debug menu, select Attach to Process…).
Selenium Manager is a command-line tool implemented in Rust that provides automated driver and browser management for Selenium. Selenium bindings use this tool by default, so you do not need to download it or add anything to your code or do anything else to use it.
Motivation
TL;DR:Selenium Manager is the official driver manager of the Selenium project, and it is shipped out of the box with every Selenium release.
Selenium uses the native support implemented by each browser to carry out the automation process. For this reason, Selenium users need to place a component called driver (chromedriver, geckodriver, msedgedriver, etc.) between the script using the Selenium API and the browser. For many years, managing these drivers was a manual process for Selenium users. This way, they had to download the required driver for a browser (chromedriver for Chrome, geckodriver for Firefox, etc.) and place it in the PATH or export the driver path as a system property (Java, JavaScript, etc.). But this process was cumbersome and led to maintainability issues.
Let’s consider an example. Imagine you manually downloaded the required chromedriver for driving your Chrome with Selenium. When you did this process, the stable version of Chrome was 113, so you downloaded chromedriver 113 and put it in your PATH. At that moment, your Selenium script executed correctly. But the problem is that Chrome is evergreen. This name refers to Chrome’s ability to upgrade automatically and silently to the next stable version when available. This feature is excellent for end-users but potentially dangerous for browser automation. Let’s go back to the example to discover it. Your local Chrome eventually updates to version 115. And that moment, your Selenium script is broken due to the incompatibility between the manually downloaded driver (113) and the Chrome version (115). Thus, your Selenium script fails with the following error message: “session not created: This version of ChromeDriver only supports Chrome version 113”.
This problem is the primary reason for the existence of the so-called driver managers (such as WebDriverManager for Java,
webdriver-manager for Python, webdriver-manager for JavaScript, WebDriverManager.Net for C#, and webdrivers for Ruby). All these projects were an inspiration and a clear sign that the community needed this feature to be built in Selenium. Thus, the Selenium project has created Selenium Manager, the official driver manager for Selenium, shipped out of the box with each Selenium release as of version 4.6.
Usage
TL;DR:Selenium Manager is used by the Selenium bindings when the drivers (chromedriver, geckodriver, etc.) are unavailable.
Driver management through Selenium Manager is opt-in for the Selenium bindings. Thus, users can continue managing their drivers manually (putting the driver in the PATH or using system properties) or rely on a third-party driver manager to do it automatically. Selenium Manager only operates as a fallback: if no driver is provided, Selenium Manager will come to the rescue.
Selenium Manager is a CLI (command line interface) tool implemented in Rust to allow cross-platform execution and compiled for Windows, Linux, and macOS. The Selenium Manager binaries are shipped with each Selenium release. This way, each Selenium binding language invokes Selenium Manager to carry out the automated driver and browser management explained in the following sections.
Automated driver management
TL;DR:Selenium Manager automatically discovers, downloads, and caches the drivers required by Selenium when these drivers are unavailable.
The primary feature of Selenium Manager is called automated driver management. Let’s consider an example to understand it. Suppose we want to driver Chrome with Selenium (see the doc about how to start a session with Selenium). Before the session begins, and when the driver is unavailable, Selenium Manager manages chromedriver for us. We use the term management for this feature (and not just download) since this process is broader and implies different steps:
Browser version discovery. Selenium Manager discovers the browser version (e.g., Chrome, Firefox, Edge) installed in the machine that executes Selenium. This step uses shell commands (e.g., google-chrome --version).
Driver version discovery. With the discovered browser version, the proper driver version is resolved. For this step, the online metadata/endpoints maintained by the browser vendors (e.g., chromedriver, geckodriver, or msedgedriver) are used.
Driver download. The driver URL is obtained with the resolved driver version; with that URL, the driver artifact is downloaded, uncompressed, and stored locally.
Driver cache. Uncompressed driver binaries are stored in a local cache folder (~/.cache/selenium). The next time the same driver is required, it will be used from there if the driver is already in the cache.
Automated browser management
TL;DR:Selenium Manager automatically discovers, downloads, and caches the browsers driven with Selenium (Chrome, Firefox, and Edge) when these browsers are not installed in the local system.
As of Selenium 4.11.0, Selenium Manager also implements automated browser management. With this feature, Selenium Manager allows us to discover, download, and cache the different browser releases, making them seamlessly available for Selenium. Internally, Selenium Manager uses an equivalent management procedure explained in the section before, but this time, for browser releases.
The browser automatically managed by Selenium Manager are:
Let’s consider again the typical example of driving Chrome with Selenium. And this time, suppose Chrome is not installed on the local machine when starting a new session). In that case, the current stable CfT release will be discovered, downloaded, and cached (in ~/.cache/selenium/chrome) by Selenium Manager.
But there is more. In addition to the stable browser version, Selenium Manager also allows downloading older browser versions (in the case of CfT, starting in version 113, the first version published as CfT). To set a browser version with Selenium, we use a browser option called browserVersion.
Let’s consider another simple example. Suppose we set browserVersion to 114 using Chrome options. In this case, Selenium Manager will check if Chrome 114 is already installed. If it is, it will be used. If not, Selenium Manager will manage (i.e., discover, download, and cache) CfT 114. And in either case, the chromedriver is also managed. Finally, Selenium will start Chrome to be driven programmatically, as usual.
But there is even more. In addition to fixed browser versions (e.g., 113, 114, 115, etc.), we can use the following labels for browserVersion:
stable: Current CfT version.
beta: Next version to stable.
dev: Version in development at this moment.
canary: Nightly build for developers.
esr: Extended Support Release (only for Firefox).
When these labels are specified, Selenium Manager first checks if a given browser is already installed (beta, dev, etc.), and when it is not detected, the browser is automatically managed.
Edge in Windows
Automated Edge management by Selenium Manager in Windows is different from other browsers. Both Chrome and Firefox (and Edge in macOS and Linux) are downloaded automatically to the local cache (~/.cache/selenium) by Selenium Manager. Nevertheless, the same cannot be done for Edge in Windows. The reason is that the Edge installer for Windows is distributed as a Microsoft Installer (MSI) file, designed to be executed with administrator rights. This way, when Edge is attempted to be installed with Selenium Manager in Windows with a non-administrator session, a warning message will be displayed by Selenium Manager as follows:
edge can only be installed in Windows with administrator permissions
Therefore, administrator permissions are required to install Edge in Windows automatically through Selenium Manager, and Edge is eventually installed in the usual program files folder (e.g., C:\Program Files (x86)\Microsoft\Edge).
Configuration
TL;DR:Selenium Manager should work silently and transparently for most users. Nevertheless, there are scenarios (e.g., to specify a custom cache path or setup globally a proxy) where custom configuration can be required.
Selenium Manager is a CLI tool. Therefore, under the hood, the Selenium bindings call Selenium Manager by invoking shell commands. Like any other CLI tool, arguments can be used to specify specific capabilities in Selenium Manager. The different arguments supported by Selenium Manager can be checked by running the following command:
$ ./selenium-manager --help
In addition to CLI arguments, Selenium Manager allows two additional mechanisms for configuration:
Configuration file. Selenium Manager uses a file called se-config.toml located in the Selenium cache (by default, at ~/.cache/selenium) for custom configuration values. This TOML file contains a key-value collection used for custom configuration.
Environmental variables. Each configuration key has its equivalence in environmental variables by converting each key name to uppercase, replacing the dash symbol (-) with an underscore (_), and adding the prefix SE_.
The configuration file is honored by Selenium Manager when it is present, and the corresponding CLI parameter is not specified. Besides, the environmental variables are used when neither of the previous options (CLI arguments and configuration file) is specified. In other words, the order of preference for Selenium Manager custom configuration is as follows:
CLI arguments.
Configuration file.
Environment variables.
Notice that the Selenium bindings use the CLI arguments to specify configuration values, which in turn, are defined in each binding using browser options.
The following table summarizes all the supported arguments supported by Selenium Manager and their correspondence key in the configuration file and environment variables.
CLI argument
Configuration file
Env variable
Description
--browser BROWSER
browser = "BROWSER"
SE_BROWSER=BROWSER
Browser name: chrome, firefox, edge, iexplorer, safari, safaritp, or webview2
--driver <DRIVER>
driver = "DRIVER"
SE_DRIVER=DRIVER
Driver name: chromedriver, geckodriver, msedgedriver, IEDriverServer, or safaridriver
--browser-version <BROWSER_VERSION>
browser-version = "BROWSER_VERSION"
SE_BROWSER_VERSION=BROWSER_VERSION
Major browser version (e.g., 105, 106, etc. Also: beta, dev, canary -or nightly-, and esr -in Firefox- are accepted)
--driver-version <DRIVER_VERSION>
driver-version = "DRIVER_VERSION"
SE_DRIVER_VERSION=DRIVER_VERSION
Driver version (e.g., 106.0.5249.61, 0.31.0, etc.)
--browser-path <BROWSER_PATH>
browser-path = "BROWSER_PATH"
SE_BROWSER_PATH=BROWSER_PATH
Browser path (absolute) for browser version detection (e.g., /usr/bin/google-chrome, /Applications/Google Chrome.app/Contents/MacOS/Google Chrome, C:\Program Files\Google\Chrome\Application\chrome.exe)
Operating system for drivers and browsers (i.e., windows, linux, or macos)
--arch <ARCH>
arch = "ARCH"
SE_ARCH=ARCH
System architecture for drivers and browsers (i.e., x32, x64, or arm64)
--proxy <PROXY>
proxy = "PROXY"
SE_PROXY=PROXY
HTTP proxy for network connection (e.g., myproxy:port, myuser:mypass@myproxy:port)
--timeout <TIMEOUT>
timeout = TIMEOUT
SE_TIMEOUT=TIMEOUT
Timeout for network requests (in seconds). Default: 300
--offline
offline = true
SE_OFFLINE=true
Offline mode (i.e., disabling network requests and downloads)
--force-browser-download
force-browser-download = true
SE_FORCE_BROWSER_DOWNLOAD=true
Force to download browser, e.g., when a browser is already installed in the system, but you want Selenium Manager to download and use it
--avoid-browser-download
avoid-browser-download = true
SE_AVOID_BROWSER_DOWNLOAD=true
Avoid to download browser, e.g., when a browser is supposed to be downloaded by Selenium Manager, but you prefer to avoid it
--debug
debug = true
SE_DEBUG=true
Display DEBUG messages
--trace
trace = true
SE_TRACE=true
Display TRACE messages
--cache-path <CACHE_PATH>
cache-path="CACHE_PATH"
SE_CACHE_PATH=CACHE_PATH
Local folder used to store downloaded assets (drivers and browsers), local metadata, and configuration file. See next section for details. Default: ~/.cache/selenium. For Windows paths in the TOML configuration file, double backslashes are required (e.g., C:\\custom\\cache).
--ttl <TTL>
ttl = TTL
SE_TTL=TTL
Time-to-live in seconds. See next section for details. Default: 3600 (1 hour)
In addition to the configuration keys specified in the table before, there are some special cases, namely:
Browser version. In addition to browser-version, we can use the specific configuration keys to specify custom versions per supported browser. This way, the keys chrome-version, firefox-version, edge-version, etc., are supported. The same applies to environment variables (i.e., SE_CHROME_VERSION, SE_FIREFOX_VERSION, SE_EDGE_VERSION, etc.).
Driver version. Following the same pattern, we can use chromedriver-version, geckodriver-version, msedgedriver-version, etc. (in the configuration file), and SE_CHROMEDRIVER_VERSION, SE_GECKODRIVER_VERSION, SE_MSEDGEDRIVER_VERSION, etc. (as environment variables).
Browser path. Following the same pattern, we can use chrome-path, firefox-path, edge-path, etc. (in the configuration file), and SE_CHROME_PATH, SE_FIREFOX_PATH, SE_EDGE_PATH, etc. (as environment variables). The Selenium bindings also allow to specify a custom location of the browser path using options, namely: Chrome), Edge, or Firefox.
Driver mirror. Following the same pattern, we can use chromedriver-mirror-url, geckodriver-mirror-url, msedgedriver-mirror-url, etc. (in the configuration file), and SE_CHROMEDRIVER_MIRROR_URL, SE_GECKODRIVER_MIRROR_URL, SE_MSEDGEDRIVER_MIRROR_URL, etc. (as environment variables).
Browser mirror. Following the same pattern, we can use chrome-mirror-url, firefox-mirror-url, edge-mirror-url, etc. (in the configuration file), and SE_CHROME_MIRROR_URL, SE_FIREFOX_MIRROR_URL, SE_EDGE_MIRROR_URL, etc. (as environment variables).
Caching
TL;DR:The drivers and browsers managed by Selenium Manager are stored in a local folder (~/.cache/selenium).
The cache in Selenium Manager is a local folder (~/.cache/selenium by default) in which the downloaded assets (drivers and browsers) are stored. For the sake of performance, when a driver or browser is already in the cache (i.e., there is a cache hint), Selenium Manager uses it from there.
In addition to the downloaded drivers and browsers, two additional files live in the cache’s root:
Configuration file (se-config.toml). This file is optional and, as explained in the previous section, allows to store custom configuration values for Selenium Manager. This file is maintained by the end-user and read by Selenium Manager.
Metadata file (se-metadata.json). This file contains versions discovered by Selenium Manger making network requests (e.g., using the CfT JSON endpoints) and the time-to-live (TTL) in which they are valid. Selenium Manager automatically maintains this file.
The TTL in Selenium Manager is inspired by the TTL for DNS, a well-known mechanism that refers to how long some values are cached before they are automatically refreshed. In the case of Selenium Manager, these values are the versions found by making network requests for driver and browser version discovery. By default, the TTL is 3600 seconds (i.e., 1 hour) and can be tuned using configuration values or disabled by setting this configuration value to 0.
The TTL mechanism is a way to improve the overall performance of Selenium. It is based on the fact that the discovered driver and browser versions (e.g., the proper chromedriver version for Chrome 115 is 115.0.5790.170) will likely remain the same in the short term. Therefore, the discovered versions are written in the metadata file and read from there instead of making the same consecutive network request. This way, during the driver version discovery (step 2 of the automated driver management process previously introduced), Selenium Manager first reads the file metadata. When a fresh resolution (i.e., a driver/browser version valid during a TTL) is found, that version is used (saving some time in making a new network request). If not found or the TTL has expired, a network request is made, and the result is stored in the metadata file.
Let’s consider an example. A Selenium binding asks Selenium Manager to resolve chromedriver. Selenium Manager detects that Chrome 115 is installed, so it makes a network request to the CfT endpoints to discover the proper chromedriver version (115.0.5790.170, at that moment). This version is stored in the metadata file and considered valid during the next hour (TTL). If Selenium Manager is asked to resolve chromedriver during that time (which is likely to happen in the execution of a test suite), the chromedriver version is discovered by reading the metadata file instead of making a new request to the CfT endpoints. After one hour, the chromedriver version stored in the cache will be considered as stale, and Selenium Manager will refresh it by making a new network request to the corresponding endpoint.
Selenium Manager includes two additional arguments two handle the cache, namely:
--clear-cache: To remove the cache folder.
--clear-metadata: To remove the metadata file.
Versioning
Selenium Manager follows the same versioning schema as Selenium. Nevertheless, we use the major version 0 for Selenium Manager releases because it is still in beta. For example, the Selenium Manager binaries shipped with Selenium 4.12.0 corresponds to version 0.4.12.
Getting Selenium Manager
For most users, direct interaction with Selenium Manager is not required since the Selenium bindings use it internally. Nevertheless, if you want to play with Selenium Manager or use it for your use case involving driver or browser management, you can get the Selenium Manager binaries in different ways:
From the Selenium repository. The Selenium Manager source code is stored in the main Selenium repo under the folder rust. Moreover, you can find the compiled versions for Windows, Linux, and macOS in the common folder of this repo.
From the build workflow. Selenium Manager is compiled using a GitHub Actions workflow. This workflow creates binaries for Windows, Linux, and macOS. You can download these binaries from these workflow executions.
From the cache. As of version 4.15.0 of the Selenium Java bindings, the Selenium Manager binary is extracted and copied to the cache folder. For instance, the Selenium Manager binary shipped with Selenium 4.15.0 is stored in the folder ~/.cache/selenium/manager/0.4.15).
Examples
Let’s consider a typical example: we want to manage chromedriver automatically. For that, we invoke Selenium Manager as follows (notice that the flag --debug is optional, but it helps us to understand what Selenium Manager is doing):
$ ./selenium-manager --browser chrome --debug
DEBUG chromedriver not found in PATH
DEBUG chrome detected at C:\Program Files\Google\Chrome\Application\chrome.exe
DEBUG Running command: wmic datafile where name='C:\\Program Files\\Google\\Chrome\\Application\\chrome.exe' get Version /value
DEBUG Output: "\r\r\n\r\r\nVersion=116.0.5845.111\r\r\n\r\r\n\r\r\n\r"
DEBUG Detected browser: chrome 116.0.5845.111
DEBUG Discovering versions from https://googlechromelabs.github.io/chrome-for-testing/known-good-versions-with-downloads.json
DEBUG Required driver: chromedriver 116.0.5845.96
DEBUG Downloading chromedriver 116.0.5845.96 from https://edgedl.me.gvt1.com/edgedl/chrome/chrome-for-testing/116.0.5845.96/win64/chromedriver-win64.zip
INFO Driver path: C:\Users\boni\.cache\selenium\chromedriver\win64\116.0.5845.96\chromedriver.exe
INFO Browser path: C:\Program Files\Google\Chrome\Application\chrome.exe
In this case, the local Chrome (in Windows) is detected by Selenium Manager. Then, using its version and the CfT endpoints, the proper chromedriver version (115, in this example) is downloaded to the local cache. Finally, Selenium Manager provides two results: i) the driver path (downloaded) and ii) the browser path (local).
Let’s consider another example. Now we want to use Chrome beta. Therefore, we invoke Selenium Manager specifying that version label as follows (notice that the CfT beta is discovered, downloaded, and stored in the local cache):
$ ./selenium-manager --browser chrome --browser-version beta --debug
DEBUG chromedriver not found in PATH
DEBUG chrome not found in PATH
DEBUG chrome beta not found in the system
DEBUG Discovering versions from https://googlechromelabs.github.io/chrome-for-testing/last-known-good-versions-with-downloads.json
DEBUG Required browser: chrome 117.0.5938.22
DEBUG Downloading chrome 117.0.5938.22 from https://edgedl.me.gvt1.com/edgedl/chrome/chrome-for-testing/117.0.5938.22/win64/chrome-win64.zip
DEBUG chrome 117.0.5938.22 has been downloaded at C:\Users\boni\.cache\selenium\chrome\win64\117.0.5938.22\chrome.exe
DEBUG Discovering versions from https://googlechromelabs.github.io/chrome-for-testing/known-good-versions-with-downloads.json
DEBUG Required driver: chromedriver 117.0.5938.22
DEBUG Downloading chromedriver 117.0.5938.22 from https://edgedl.me.gvt1.com/edgedl/chrome/chrome-for-testing/117.0.5938.22/win64/chromedriver-win64.zip
INFO Driver path: C:\Users\boni\.cache\selenium\chromedriver\win64\117.0.5938.22\chromedriver.exe
INFO Browser path: C:\Users\boni\.cache\selenium\chrome\win64\117.0.5938.22\chrome.exe
Selenium Grid
Selenium Manager allows you to configure the drivers automatically when setting up Selenium Grid. To that aim, you need to include the argument --selenium-manager true in the command to start Selenium Grid. For more details, visit the Selenium Grid starting page.
Moreover, Selenium Manager also allows managing Selenium Grid releases automatically. For that, the argument --grid is used as follows:
$ ./selenium-manager --grid
After this command, Selenium Manager discovers the latest version of Selenium Grid, storing the selenium-server.jar in the local cache.
Optionally, the argument --grid allows to specify a Selenium Grid version (--grid <GRID_VERSION>).
Known Limitations
Connectivity issues
Selenium Manager requests remote endpoints (like Chrome for Testing (CfT), among others) to discover and download drivers and browsers from online repositories. When this operation is done in a corporate environment with a proxy or firewall, it might lead to connectivity problems like the following:
error sending request for url (https://googlechromelabs.github.io/chrome-for-testing/known-good-versions-with-downloads.json)
error trying to connect: dns error: failed to lookup address information
error trying to connect: An existing connection was forcibly closed by the remote host. (os error 10054)
When that happens, consider the following solutions:
Use the proxy capabilities of Selenium (see documentation). Alternatively, use the environment variable SE_PROXY to set the proxy URL or use the configuration file (see configuration).
Review your network setup to enable the remote requests and downloads required by Selenium Manager.
Custom package managers
If you are using a Linux package manager (Anaconda, snap, etc) that requires a specific driver be used for your browsers,
you’ll need to either specify the
driver location,
the browser location,
or both, depending on the requirements.
Alternative architectures
Selenium supports all five architectures managed by Google’s Chrome for Testing, and all six drivers provided for Microsoft Edge.
Each release of the Selenium bindings comes with three separate Selenium Manager binaries — one for Linux, Windows, and Mac.
The Mac version supports both x64 and aarch64 (Intel and Apple).
The Windows version should work for both x86 and x64 (32-bit and 64-bit OS).
The Linux version has only been verified to work for x64.
Reasons for not supporting more architectures:
Neither Chrome for Testing nor Microsoft Edge supports additional architectures, so Selenium Manager would need to
manage something unofficial for it to work.
We currently build the binaries from existing GitHub actions runners, which do not support these architectures
Any additional architectures would get distributed with all Selenium releases, increasing the total build size
If you are running Linux on arm64/aarch64, 32-bit architecture, or a Raspberry Pi, Selenium Manager will not work for you.
The biggest issue for people is that they used to get custom-built drivers and put them on PATH and have them work.
Now that Selenium Manager is responsible for locating drivers on PATH, this approach no longer works, and users
need to use a Service class and set the location directly.
There are a number of advantages to having Selenium Manager look for drivers on PATH instead of managing that logic
in each of the bindings, so that’s currently a trade-off we are comfortable with.
However, as of Selenium 4.13.0, the Selenium bindings allow locating the Selenium Manager binary using an environment variable called SE_MANAGER_PATH. If this variable is set, the bindings will use its value as the Selenium Manager path in the local filesystem. This feature will allow users to provide a custom compilation of Selenium Manager, for instance, if the default binaries (compiled for Windows, Linux, and macOS) are incompatible with a given system (e.g., ARM64 in Linux).
Browser dependencies
When automatically managing browsers in Linux, Selenium Manager relies on the releases published by the browser vendors (i.e., Chrome, Firefox, and Edge). These releases are portable in most cases. Nevertheless, there might be cases in which existing libraries are required. In Linux, this problem might be experienced when trying to run Firefox, e.g., as follows:
libdbus-glib-1.so.2: cannot open shared object file: No such file or directory
Couldn't load XPCOM.
If that happens, the solution is to install that library, for instance, as follows:
sudo apt-get install libdbus-glib-1-2
A similar issue might happen when trying to execute Chrome for Testing in Linux:
error while loading shared libraries: libatk-1.0.so.0: cannot open shared object file: No such file or directory
In this case, the library to be installed is the following:
不管您如何回答这个问题,
解决方案是让它成为测试中“设置数据”部分的一部分 - 如果 Larry 公开了一个 API,
使您(或任何人)能够创建和更新用户帐户,
一定要用它来回答这个问题
请确保使用这个 API 来回答这个问题 — 如果可能的话,
您希望只有在您拥有一个用户之后才启动浏览器,您可以使用该用户的凭证进行登录。
如果每个工作流的每个测试都是从创建用户帐户开始的,那么每个测试的执行都会增加许多秒。
调用 API 并与数据库进行通信是快速、“无头”的操作,
不需要打开浏览器、导航到正确页面、点击并等待表单提交等昂贵的过程。
理想情况下,您可以在一行代码中处理这个设置阶段,这些代码将在任何浏览器启动之前执行:
// Create a user who has read-only permissions--they can configure a unicorn,
// but they do not have payment information set up, nor do they have
// administrative privileges. At the time the user is created, its email
// address and password are randomly generated--you don't even need to
// know them.
Useruser=UserFactory.createCommonUser();//This method is defined elsewhere.
// Log in as this user.
// Logging in on this site takes you to your personal "My Account" page, so the
// AccountPage object is returned by the loginAs method, allowing you to then
// perform actions from the AccountPage.
AccountPageaccountPage=loginAs(user.getEmail(),user.getPassword());
# Create a user who has read-only permissions--they can configure a unicorn,# but they do not have payment information set up, nor do they have# administrative privileges. At the time the user is created, its email# address and password are randomly generated--you don't even need to# know them.user=user_factory.create_common_user()#This method is defined elsewhere.# Log in as this user.# Logging in on this site takes you to your personal "My Account" page, so the# AccountPage object is returned by the loginAs method, allowing you to then# perform actions from the AccountPage.account_page=login_as(user.get_email(),user.get_password())
// Create a user who has read-only permissions--they can configure a unicorn,// but they do not have payment information set up, nor do they have// administrative privileges. At the time the user is created, its email// address and password are randomly generated--you don't even need to// know them.Useruser=UserFactory.CreateCommonUser();//This method is defined elsewhere.// Log in as this user.// Logging in on this site takes you to your personal "My Account" page, so the// AccountPage object is returned by the loginAs method, allowing you to then// perform actions from the AccountPage.AccountPageaccountPage=LoginAs(user.Email,user.Password);
# Create a user who has read-only permissions--they can configure a unicorn,# but they do not have payment information set up, nor do they have# administrative privileges. At the time the user is created, its email# address and password are randomly generated--you don't even need to# know them.user=UserFactory.create_common_user#This method is defined elsewhere.# Log in as this user.# Logging in on this site takes you to your personal "My Account" page, so the# AccountPage object is returned by the loginAs method, allowing you to then# perform actions from the AccountPage.account_page=login_as(user.email,user.password)
// Create a user who has read-only permissions--they can configure a unicorn,
// but they do not have payment information set up, nor do they have
// administrative privileges. At the time the user is created, its email
// address and password are randomly generated--you don't even need to
// know them.
varuser=userFactory.createCommonUser();//This method is defined elsewhere.
// Log in as this user.
// Logging in on this site takes you to your personal "My Account" page, so the
// AccountPage object is returned by the loginAs method, allowing you to then
// perform actions from the AccountPage.
varaccountPage=loginAs(user.email,user.password);
// Create a user who has read-only permissions--they can configure a unicorn,
// but they do not have payment information set up, nor do they have
// administrative privileges. At the time the user is created, its email
// address and password are randomly generated--you don't even need to
// know them.
valuser=UserFactory.createCommonUser()//This method is defined elsewhere.
// Log in as this user.
// Logging in on this site takes you to your personal "My Account" page, so the
// AccountPage object is returned by the loginAs method, allowing you to then
// perform actions from the AccountPage.
valaccountPage=loginAs(user.getEmail(),user.getPassword())
请注意,我们在该段落中没有讨论按钮,字段,下拉菜单,单选按钮或 Web 表单。
您的测试也不应该!
您希望像尝试解决问题的用户一样编写代码。
这是一种方法(从前面的例子继续):
// The Unicorn is a top-level Object--it has attributes, which are set here.
// This only stores the values; it does not fill out any web forms or interact
// with the browser in any way.
Unicornsparkles=newUnicorn("Sparkles",UnicornColors.PURPLE,UnicornAccessories.SUNGLASSES,UnicornAdornments.STAR_TATTOOS);// Since we're already "on" the account page, we have to use it to get to the
// actual place where you configure unicorns. Calling the "Add Unicorn" method
// takes us there.
AddUnicornPageaddUnicornPage=accountPage.addUnicorn();// Now that we're on the AddUnicornPage, we will pass the "sparkles" object to
// its createUnicorn() method. This method will take Sparkles' attributes,
// fill out the form, and click submit.
UnicornConfirmationPageunicornConfirmationPage=addUnicornPage.createUnicorn(sparkles);
# The Unicorn is a top-level Object--it has attributes, which are set here.# This only stores the values; it does not fill out any web forms or interact# with the browser in any way.sparkles=Unicorn("Sparkles",UnicornColors.PURPLE,UnicornAccessories.SUNGLASSES,UnicornAdornments.STAR_TATTOOS)# Since we're already "on" the account page, we have to use it to get to the# actual place where you configure unicorns. Calling the "Add Unicorn" method# takes us there.add_unicorn_page=account_page.add_unicorn()# Now that we're on the AddUnicornPage, we will pass the "sparkles" object to# its createUnicorn() method. This method will take Sparkles' attributes,# fill out the form, and click submit.unicorn_confirmation_page=add_unicorn_page.create_unicorn(sparkles)
// The Unicorn is a top-level Object--it has attributes, which are set here. // This only stores the values; it does not fill out any web forms or interact// with the browser in any way.Unicornsparkles=newUnicorn("Sparkles",UnicornColors.Purple,UnicornAccessories.Sunglasses,UnicornAdornments.StarTattoos);// Since we are already "on" the account page, we have to use it to get to the// actual place where you configure unicorns. Calling the "Add Unicorn" method// takes us there.AddUnicornPageaddUnicornPage=accountPage.AddUnicorn();// Now that we're on the AddUnicornPage, we will pass the "sparkles" object to// its createUnicorn() method. This method will take Sparkles' attributes,// fill out the form, and click submit.UnicornConfirmationPageunicornConfirmationPage=addUnicornPage.CreateUnicorn(sparkles);
# The Unicorn is a top-level Object--it has attributes, which are set here.# This only stores the values; it does not fill out any web forms or interact# with the browser in any way.sparkles=Unicorn.new('Sparkles',UnicornColors.PURPLE,UnicornAccessories.SUNGLASSES,UnicornAdornments.STAR_TATTOOS)# Since we're already "on" the account page, we have to use it to get to the# actual place where you configure unicorns. Calling the "Add Unicorn" method# takes us there.add_unicorn_page=account_page.add_unicorn# Now that we're on the AddUnicornPage, we will pass the "sparkles" object to# its createUnicorn() method. This method will take Sparkles' attributes,# fill out the form, and click submit.unicorn_confirmation_page=add_unicorn_page.create_unicorn(sparkles)
// The Unicorn is a top-level Object--it has attributes, which are set here.
// This only stores the values; it does not fill out any web forms or interact
// with the browser in any way.
varsparkles=newUnicorn("Sparkles",UnicornColors.PURPLE,UnicornAccessories.SUNGLASSES,UnicornAdornments.STAR_TATTOOS);// Since we are already "on" the account page, we have to use it to get to the
// actual place where you configure unicorns. Calling the "Add Unicorn" method
// takes us there.
varaddUnicornPage=accountPage.addUnicorn();// Now that we're on the AddUnicornPage, we will pass the "sparkles" object to
// its createUnicorn() method. This method will take Sparkles' attributes,
// fill out the form, and click submit.
varunicornConfirmationPage=addUnicornPage.createUnicorn(sparkles);
// The Unicorn is a top-level Object--it has attributes, which are set here.
// This only stores the values; it does not fill out any web forms or interact
// with the browser in any way.
valsparkles=Unicorn("Sparkles",UnicornColors.PURPLE,UnicornAccessories.SUNGLASSES,UnicornAdornments.STAR_TATTOOS)// Since we are already "on" the account page, we have to use it to get to the
// actual place where you configure unicorns. Calling the "Add Unicorn" method
// takes us there.
valaddUnicornPage=accountPage.addUnicorn()// Now that we're on the AddUnicornPage, we will pass the "sparkles" object to
// its createUnicorn() method. This method will take Sparkles' attributes,
// fill out the form, and click submit.
unicornConfirmationPage=addUnicornPage.createUnicorn(sparkles)
既然您已经配置好了独角兽,
您需要进入第三步:确保它确实有效。
// The exists() method from UnicornConfirmationPage will take the Sparkles
// object--a specification of the attributes you want to see, and compare
// them with the fields on the page.
Assert.assertTrue("Sparkles should have been created, with all attributes intact",unicornConfirmationPage.exists(sparkles));
# The exists() method from UnicornConfirmationPage will take the Sparkles# object--a specification of the attributes you want to see, and compare# them with the fields on the page.assertunicorn_confirmation_page.exists(sparkles),"Sparkles should have been created, with all attributes intact"
// The exists() method from UnicornConfirmationPage will take the Sparkles // object--a specification of the attributes you want to see, and compare// them with the fields on the page.Assert.True(unicornConfirmationPage.Exists(sparkles),"Sparkles should have been created, with all attributes intact");
# The exists() method from UnicornConfirmationPage will take the Sparkles# object--a specification of the attributes you want to see, and compare# them with the fields on the page.expect(unicorn_confirmation_page.exists?(sparkles)).tobe,'Sparkles should have been created, with all attributes intact'
// The exists() method from UnicornConfirmationPage will take the Sparkles
// object--a specification of the attributes you want to see, and compare
// them with the fields on the page.
assert(unicornConfirmationPage.exists(sparkles),"Sparkles should have been created, with all attributes intact");
// The exists() method from UnicornConfirmationPage will take the Sparkles
// object--a specification of the attributes you want to see, and compare
// them with the fields on the page.
assertTrue("Sparkles should have been created, with all attributes intact",unicornConfirmationPage.exists(sparkles))
Most of the documentation found in this section is still in English.
Please note we are not accepting pull requests to translate this content
as translating documentation of legacy components does not add value to
the community nor the project.
Over time, projects tend to accumulate large numbers of tests. As the total number of tests increases,
it becomes harder to make changes to the codebase — a single “simple” change may
cause numerous tests to fail, even though the application still works properly.
Sometimes these problems are unavoidable, but when they do occur you want to be
up and running again as quickly as possible. The following design patterns and
strategies have been used before with WebDriver to help to make tests easier to write and maintain. They may help you too.
DomainDrivenDesign: Express your tests in the language of the end-user of the app.
PageObjects: A simple abstraction of the UI of your web app.
LoadableComponent: Modeling PageObjects as components.
BotStyleTests: Using a command-based approach to automating tests, rather than the object-based approach that PageObjects encourage
Loadable Component
What Is It?
The LoadableComponent is a base class that aims to make writing PageObjects
less painful. It does this by providing a standard way of ensuring that pages
are loaded and providing hooks to make debugging the failure of a page to load
easier. You can use it to help reduce the amount of boilerplate code in your
tests, which in turn make maintaining your tests less tiresome.
There is currently an implementation in Java that ships as part of Selenium 2,
but the approach used is simple enough to be implemented in any language.
Simple Usage
As an example of a UI that we’d like to model, take a look at
the new issue page.
From the point of view of a test author, this offers the service of being
able to file a new issue. A basic Page Object would look like:
In order to turn this into a LoadableComponent, all we need to do is to set that as the base type:
publicclassEditIssueextendsLoadableComponent<EditIssue>{// rest of class ignored for now
}
This signature looks a little unusual, but it all means is that
this class represents a LoadableComponent that loads the EditIssue page.
By extending this base class, we need to implement two new methods:
@Overrideprotectedvoidload(){driver.get("https://github.com/SeleniumHQ/selenium/issues/new");}@OverrideprotectedvoidisLoaded()throwsError{Stringurl=driver.getCurrentUrl();assertTrue("Not on the issue entry page: "+url,url.endsWith("/new"));}
The load method is used to navigate to the page, whilst the isLoaded method
is used to determine whether we are on the right page. Although the
method looks like it should return a boolean, instead it performs a
series of assertions using JUnit’s Assert class. There can be as
few or as many assertions as you like. By using these assertions
it’s possible to give users of the class clear information that
can be used to debug tests.
With a little rework, our PageObject looks like:
packagecom.example.webdriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.By;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebElement;importorg.openqa.selenium.support.FindBy;importorg.openqa.selenium.support.PageFactory;import staticjunit.framework.Assert.assertTrue;publicclassEditIssueextendsLoadableComponent<EditIssue>{privatefinalWebDriverdriver;// By default the PageFactory will locate elements with the same name or id
// as the field. Since the summary element has a name attribute of "summary"
// we don't need any additional annotations.
privateWebElementsummary;// Same with the submit element, which has the ID "submit"
privateWebElementsubmit;// But we'd prefer a different name in our code than "comment", so we use the
// FindBy annotation to tell the PageFactory how to locate the element.
@FindBy(name="comment")privateWebElementdescription;publicEditIssue(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;// This call sets the WebElement fields.
PageFactory.initElements(driver,this);}@Overrideprotectedvoidload(){driver.get("https://github.com/SeleniumHQ/selenium/issues/new");}@OverrideprotectedvoidisLoaded()throwsError{Stringurl=driver.getCurrentUrl();assertTrue("Not on the issue entry page: "+url,url.endsWith("/new"));}publicvoidsetSummary(StringissueSummary){clearAndType(summary,issueSummary);}publicvoidenterDescription(StringissueDescription){clearAndType(description,issueDescription);}publicIssueListsubmit(){submit.click();returnnewIssueList(driver);}privatevoidclearAndType(WebElementfield,Stringtext){field.clear();field.sendKeys(text);}}
That doesn’t seem to have bought us much, right? One thing it has done
is encapsulate the information about how to navigate to the page into
the page itself, meaning that this information’s not scattered through
the code base. It also means that we can do this in our tests:
EditIssuepage=newEditIssue(driver).get();
This call will cause the driver to navigate to the page if that’s necessary.
Nested Components
LoadableComponents start to become more useful when they are used in
conjunction with other LoadableComponents. Using our example, we could
view the “edit issue” page as a component within a project’s website
(after all, we access it via a tab on that site). You also need to be
logged in to file an issue. We could model this as a tree of nested components:
+ ProjectPage
+---+ SecuredPage
+---+ EditIssue
What would this look like in code? For a start, each logical component
would have its own class. The “load” method in each of them would “get”
the parent. The end result, in addition to the EditIssue class above is:
packagecom.example.webdriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.By;importorg.openqa.selenium.NoSuchElementException;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebElement;import staticorg.junit.Assert.fail;publicclassSecuredPageextendsLoadableComponent<SecuredPage>{privatefinalWebDriverdriver;privatefinalLoadableComponent<?>parent;privatefinalStringusername;privatefinalStringpassword;publicSecuredPage(WebDriverdriver,LoadableComponent<?>parent,Stringusername,Stringpassword){this.driver=driver;this.parent=parent;this.username=username;this.password=password;}@Overrideprotectedvoidload(){parent.get();StringoriginalUrl=driver.getCurrentUrl();// Sign in
driver.get("https://www.google.com/accounts/ServiceLogin?service=code");driver.findElement(By.name("Email")).sendKeys(username);WebElementpasswordField=driver.findElement(By.name("Passwd"));passwordField.sendKeys(password);passwordField.submit();// Now return to the original URL
driver.get(originalUrl);}@OverrideprotectedvoidisLoaded()throwsError{// If you're signed in, you have the option of picking a different login.
// Let's check for the presence of that.
try{WebElementdiv=driver.findElement(By.id("multilogin-dropdown"));}catch(NoSuchElementExceptione){fail("Cannot locate user name link");}}}
This shows that the components are all “nested” within each other.
A call to get() in EditIssue will cause all its dependencies to load too. The example usage:
publicclassFooTest{privateEditIssueeditIssue;@BeforepublicvoidprepareComponents(){WebDriverdriver=newFirefoxDriver();ProjectPageproject=newProjectPage(driver,"selenium");SecuredPagesecuredPage=newSecuredPage(driver,project,"example","top secret");editIssue=newEditIssue(driver,securedPage);}@TestpublicvoiddemonstrateNestedLoadableComponents(){editIssue.get();editIssue.setSummary("Summary");editIssue.enterDescription("This is an example");}}
If you’re using a library such as Guiceberry in your tests,
the preamble of setting up the PageObjects can be omitted leading to nice, clear, readable tests.
Although PageObjects are a useful way of reducing duplication in your tests,
it’s not always a pattern that teams feel comfortable following.
An alternative approach is to follow a more “command-like” style of testing.
A “bot” is an action-oriented abstraction over the raw Selenium APIs.
This means that if you find that commands aren’t doing the Right Thing
for your app, it’s easy to change them. As an example:
publicclassActionBot{privatefinalWebDriverdriver;publicActionBot(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;}publicvoidclick(Bylocator){driver.findElement(locator).click();}publicvoidsubmit(Bylocator){driver.findElement(locator).submit();}/**
* Type something into an input field. WebDriver doesn't normally clear these
* before typing, so this method does that first. It also sends a return key
* to move the focus out of the element.
*/publicvoidtype(Bylocator,Stringtext){WebElementelement=driver.findElement(locator);element.clear();element.sendKeys(text+"\n");}}
Once these abstractions have been built and duplication in your tests
identified, it’s possible to layer PageObjects on top of bots.
Note: this page has merged contents from multiple sources, including
the Selenium wiki
Overview
Within your web app’s UI, there are areas where your tests interact with.
A Page Object only models these as objects within the test code.
This reduces the amount of duplicated code and means that if the UI changes,
the fix needs only to be applied in one place.
Page Object is a Design Pattern that has become popular in test automation for
enhancing test maintenance and reducing code duplication. A page object is an
object-oriented class that serves as an interface to a page of your AUT. The
tests then use the methods of this page object class whenever they need to
interact with the UI of that page. The benefit is that if the UI changes for
the page, the tests themselves don’t need to change, only the code within the
page object needs to change. Subsequently, all changes to support that new UI
are located in one place.
Advantages
There is a clean separation between the test code and page-specific code, such as
locators (or their use if you’re using a UI Map) and layout.
There is a single repository for the services or operations the page offers
rather than having these services scattered throughout the tests.
In both cases, this allows any modifications required due to UI changes to all
be made in one place. Helpful information on this technique can be found on
numerous blogs as this ‘test design pattern’ is becoming widely used. We
encourage readers who wish to know more to search the internet for blogs
on this subject. Many have written on this design pattern and can provide
helpful tips beyond the scope of this user guide. To get you started,
we’ll illustrate page objects with a simple example.
Examples
First, consider an example, typical of test automation, that does not use a
page object:
/***
* Tests login feature
*/publicclassLogin{publicvoidtestLogin(){// fill login data on sign-in page
driver.findElement(By.name("user_name")).sendKeys("userName");driver.findElement(By.name("password")).sendKeys("my supersecret password");driver.findElement(By.name("sign-in")).click();// verify h1 tag is "Hello userName" after login
driver.findElement(By.tagName("h1")).isDisplayed();assertThat(driver.findElement(By.tagName("h1")).getText(),is("Hello userName"));}}
There are two problems with this approach.
There is no separation between the test method and the AUT’s locators (IDs in
this example); both are intertwined in a single method. If the AUT’s UI changes
its identifiers, layout, or how a login is input and processed, the test itself
must change.
The ID-locators would be spread in multiple tests, in all tests that had to
use this login page.
Applying the page object techniques, this example could be rewritten like this
in the following example of a page object for a Sign-in page.
importorg.openqa.selenium.By;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;/**
* Page Object encapsulates the Sign-in page.
*/publicclassSignInPage{protectedWebDriverdriver;// <input name="user_name" type="text" value="">
privateByusernameBy=By.name("user_name");// <input name="password" type="password" value="">
privateBypasswordBy=By.name("password");// <input name="sign_in" type="submit" value="SignIn">
privateBysigninBy=By.name("sign_in");publicSignInPage(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;if(!driver.getTitle().equals("Sign In Page")){thrownewIllegalStateException("This is not Sign In Page,"+" current page is: "+driver.getCurrentUrl());}}/**
* Login as valid user
*
* @param userName
* @param password
* @return HomePage object
*/publicHomePageloginValidUser(StringuserName,Stringpassword){driver.findElement(usernameBy).sendKeys(userName);driver.findElement(passwordBy).sendKeys(password);driver.findElement(signinBy).click();returnnewHomePage(driver);}}
and page object for a Home page could look like this.
importorg.openqa.selenium.By;importorg.openqa.selenium.WebDriver;/**
* Page Object encapsulates the Home Page
*/publicclassHomePage{protectedWebDriverdriver;// <h1>Hello userName</h1>
privateBymessageBy=By.tagName("h1");publicHomePage(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;if(!driver.getTitle().equals("Home Page of logged in user")){thrownewIllegalStateException("This is not Home Page of logged in user,"+" current page is: "+driver.getCurrentUrl());}}/**
* Get message (h1 tag)
*
* @return String message text
*/publicStringgetMessageText(){returndriver.findElement(messageBy).getText();}publicHomePagemanageProfile(){// Page encapsulation to manage profile functionality
returnnewHomePage(driver);}/* More methods offering the services represented by Home Page
of Logged User. These methods in turn might return more Page Objects
for example click on Compose mail button could return ComposeMail class object */}
So now, the login test would use these two page objects as follows.
There is a lot of flexibility in how the page objects may be designed, but
there are a few basic rules for getting the desired maintainability of your
test code.
Assertions in Page Objects
Page objects themselves should never make verifications or assertions. This is
part of your test and should always be within the test’s code, never in an page
object. The page object will contain the representation of the page, and the
services the page provides via methods but no code related to what is being
tested should be within the page object.
There is one, single, verification which can, and should, be within the page
object and that is to verify that the page, and possibly critical elements on
the page, were loaded correctly. This verification should be done while
instantiating the page object. In the examples above, both the SignInPage and
HomePage constructors check that the expected page is available and ready for
requests from the test.
Page Component Objects
A page object does not necessarily need to represent all the parts of a
page itself. This was noted by Martin Fowler in the early days, while first coining the term “panel objects”.
The same principles used for page objects can be used to
create “Page Component Objects”, as it was later called, that represent discrete chunks of the
page and can be included in page objects. These component objects can
provide references to the elements inside those discrete chunks, and
methods to leverage the functionality or behavior provided by them.
For example, a Products page has multiple products.
<!-- Inventory Item --><divclass="inventory_item"><divclass="inventory_item_name">Backpack</div><divclass="pricebar"><divclass="inventory_item_price">$29.99</div><buttonid="add-to-cart-backpack">Add to cart</button></div></div>
The Products page HAS-A list of products. This object relationship is called Composition. In simpler terms, something is composed of another thing.
publicabstractclassBasePage{protectedWebDriverdriver;publicBasePage(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;}}// Page Object
publicclassProductsPageextendsBasePage{publicProductsPage(WebDriverdriver){super(driver);// No assertions, throws an exception if the element is not loaded
newWebDriverWait(driver,Duration.ofSeconds(3)).until(d->d.findElement(By.className("header_container")));}// Returning a list of products is a service of the page
publicList<Product>getProducts(){returndriver.findElements(By.className("inventory_item")).stream().map(e->newProduct(e))// Map WebElement to a product component
.toList();}// Return a specific product using a boolean-valued function (predicate)
// This is the behavioral Strategy Pattern from GoF
publicProductgetProduct(Predicate<Product>condition){returngetProducts().stream().filter(condition)// Filter by product name or price
.findFirst().orElseThrow();}}
The Product component object is used inside the Products page object.
publicabstractclassBaseComponent{protectedWebElementroot;publicBaseComponent(WebElementroot){this.root=root;}}// Page Component Object
publicclassProductextendsBaseComponent{// The root element contains the entire component
publicProduct(WebElementroot){super(root);// inventory_item
}publicStringgetName(){// Locating an element begins at the root of the component
returnroot.findElement(By.className("inventory_item_name")).getText();}publicBigDecimalgetPrice(){returnnewBigDecimal(root.findElement(By.className("inventory_item_price")).getText().replace("$","")).setScale(2,RoundingMode.UNNECESSARY);// Sanitation and formatting
}publicvoidaddToCart(){root.findElement(By.id("add-to-cart-backpack")).click();}}
So now, the products test would use the page object and the page component object as follows.
publicclassProductsTest{@TestpublicvoidtestProductInventory(){varproductsPage=newProductsPage(driver);// page object
varproducts=productsPage.getProducts();assertEquals(6,products.size());// expected, actual
}@TestpublicvoidtestProductPrices(){varproductsPage=newProductsPage(driver);// Pass a lambda expression (predicate) to filter the list of products
// The predicate or "strategy" is the behavior passed as parameter
varbackpack=productsPage.getProduct(p->p.getName().equals("Backpack"));// page component object
varbikeLight=productsPage.getProduct(p->p.getName().equals("Bike Light"));assertEquals(newBigDecimal("29.99"),backpack.getPrice());assertEquals(newBigDecimal("9.99"),bikeLight.getPrice());}}
The page and component are represented by their own objects. Both objects only have methods for the services they offer, which matches the real-world application in object-oriented programming.
You can even
nest component objects inside other component objects for more complex
pages. If a page in the AUT has multiple components, or common
components used throughout the site (e.g. a navigation bar), then it
may improve maintainability and reduce code duplication.
Other Design Patterns Used in Testing
There are other design patterns that also may be used in testing. Discussing all of these is
beyond the scope of this user guide. Here, we merely want to introduce the
concepts to make the reader aware of some of the things that can be done. As
was mentioned earlier, many have blogged on this topic and we encourage the
reader to search for blogs on these topics.
Implementation Notes
PageObjects can be thought of as facing in two directions simultaneously. Facing toward the developer of a test, they represent the services offered by a particular page. Facing away from the developer, they should be the only thing that has a deep knowledge of the structure of the HTML of a page (or part of a page) It’s simplest to think of the methods on a Page Object as offering the “services” that a page offers rather than exposing the details and mechanics of the page. As an example, think of the inbox of any web-based email system. Amongst the services it offers are the ability to compose a new email, choose to read a single email, and list the subject lines of the emails in the inbox. How these are implemented shouldn’t matter to the test.
Because we’re encouraging the developer of a test to try and think about the services they’re interacting with rather than the implementation, PageObjects should seldom expose the underlying WebDriver instance. To facilitate this, methods on the PageObject should return other PageObjects. This means we can effectively model the user’s journey through our application. It also means that should the way that pages relate to one another change (like when the login page asks the user to change their password the first time they log into a service when it previously didn’t do that), simply changing the appropriate method’s signature will cause the tests to fail to compile. Put another way; we can tell which tests would fail without needing to run them when we change the relationship between pages and reflect this in the PageObjects.
One consequence of this approach is that it may be necessary to model (for example) both a successful and unsuccessful login; or a click could have a different result depending on the app’s state. When this happens, it is common to have multiple methods on the PageObject:
publicclassLoginPage{publicHomePageloginAs(Stringusername,Stringpassword){// ... clever magic happens here
}publicLoginPageloginAsExpectingError(Stringusername,Stringpassword){// ... failed login here, maybe because one or both of the username and password are wrong
}publicStringgetErrorMessage(){// So we can verify that the correct error is shown
}}
The code presented above shows an important point: the tests, not the PageObjects, should be responsible for making assertions about the state of a page. For example:
publicvoidtestMessagesAreReadOrUnread(){Inboxinbox=newInbox(driver);inbox.assertMessageWithSubjectIsUnread("I like cheese");inbox.assertMessageWithSubjectIsNotUnread("I'm not fond of tofu");}
could be re-written as:
publicvoidtestMessagesAreReadOrUnread(){Inboxinbox=newInbox(driver);assertTrue(inbox.isMessageWithSubjectIsUnread("I like cheese"));assertFalse(inbox.isMessageWithSubjectIsUnread("I'm not fond of tofu"));}
Of course, as with every guideline, there are exceptions, and one that is commonly seen with PageObjects is to check that the WebDriver is on the correct page when we instantiate the PageObject. This is done in the example below.
Finally, a PageObject need not represent an entire page. It may represent a section that appears frequently within a site or page, such as site navigation. The essential principle is that there is only one place in your test suite with knowledge of the structure of the HTML of a particular (part of a) page.
Summary
The public methods represent the services that the page offers
Try not to expose the internals of the page
Generally don’t make assertions
Methods return other PageObjects
Need not represent an entire page
Different results for the same action are modelled as different methods
Example
publicclassLoginPage{privatefinalWebDriverdriver;publicLoginPage(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;// Check that we're on the right page.
if(!"Login".equals(driver.getTitle())){// Alternatively, we could navigate to the login page, perhaps logging out first
thrownewIllegalStateException("This is not the login page");}}// The login page contains several HTML elements that will be represented as WebElements.
// The locators for these elements should only be defined once.
ByusernameLocator=By.id("username");BypasswordLocator=By.id("passwd");ByloginButtonLocator=By.id("login");// The login page allows the user to type their username into the username field
publicLoginPagetypeUsername(Stringusername){// This is the only place that "knows" how to enter a username
driver.findElement(usernameLocator).sendKeys(username);// Return the current page object as this action doesn't navigate to a page represented by another PageObject
returnthis;}// The login page allows the user to type their password into the password field
publicLoginPagetypePassword(Stringpassword){// This is the only place that "knows" how to enter a password
driver.findElement(passwordLocator).sendKeys(password);// Return the current page object as this action doesn't navigate to a page represented by another PageObject
returnthis;}// The login page allows the user to submit the login form
publicHomePagesubmitLogin(){// This is the only place that submits the login form and expects the destination to be the home page.
// A seperate method should be created for the instance of clicking login whilst expecting a login failure.
driver.findElement(loginButtonLocator).submit();// Return a new page object representing the destination. Should the login page ever
// go somewhere else (for example, a legal disclaimer) then changing the method signature
// for this method will mean that all tests that rely on this behaviour won't compile.
returnnewHomePage(driver);}// The login page allows the user to submit the login form knowing that an invalid username and / or password were entered
publicLoginPagesubmitLoginExpectingFailure(){// This is the only place that submits the login form and expects the destination to be the login page due to login failure.
driver.findElement(loginButtonLocator).submit();// Return a new page object representing the destination. Should the user ever be navigated to the home page after submiting a login with credentials
// expected to fail login, the script will fail when it attempts to instantiate the LoginPage PageObject.
returnnewLoginPage(driver);}// Conceptually, the login page offers the user the service of being able to "log into"
// the application using a user name and password.
publicHomePageloginAs(Stringusername,Stringpassword){// The PageObject methods that enter username, password & submit login have already defined and should not be repeated here.
typeUsername(username);typePassword(password);returnsubmitLogin();}}
/**
* Takes a username and password, fills out the fields, and clicks "login".
* @return An instance of the AccountPage
*/publicAccountPageloginAsUser(Stringusername,Stringpassword){WebElementloginField=driver.findElement(By.id("loginField"));loginField.clear();loginField.sendKeys(username);// Fill out the password field. The locator we're using is "By.id", and we should
// have it defined elsewhere in the class.
WebElementpasswordField=driver.findElement(By.id("password"));passwordField.clear();passwordField.sendKeys(password);// Click the login button, which happens to have the id "submit".
driver.findElement(By.id("submit")).click();// Create and return a new instance of the AccountPage (via the built-in Selenium
// PageFactory).
returnPageFactory.newInstance(AccountPage.class);}
publicvoidloginTest(){loginAsUser("cbrown","cl0wn3");// Now that we're logged in, do some other stuff--since we used a DSL to support
// our testers, it's as easy as choosing from available methods.
do.something();do.somethingElse();Assert.assertTrue("Something should have been done!",something.wasDone());// Note that we still haven't referred to a button or web control anywhere in this
// script...
}
publicabstractclassBasePage{protectedWebDriverdriver;publicBasePage(WebDriverdriver){this.driver=driver;}}publicclassGoogleSearchPageextendsBasePage{publicGoogleSearchPage(WebDriverdriver){super(driver);// Generally do not assert within pages or components.
// Effectively throws an exception if the lambda condition is not met.
newWebDriverWait(driver,Duration.ofSeconds(3)).until(d->d.findElement(By.id("logo")));}publicGoogleSearchPagesetSearchString(Stringsstr){driver.findElement(By.id("gbqfq")).sendKeys(sstr);returnthis;}publicvoidclickSearchButton(){driver.findElement(By.id("gbqfb")).click();}}
验证码 (CAPTCHA), 是 全自动区分计算机和人类的图灵测试(Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart) 的简称,
是被明确地设计用于阻止自动化的, 所以不要尝试! 规避验证码的检查, 主要有两个策略:
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We want to be able to run all of our code examples in the CI to ensure that people can copy and paste and
execute everything on the site. So we put the code where it belongs in the
examples directory.
Each page in the documentation correlates to a test file in each of the languages, and should follow naming conventions.
For instance examples for this page https://www.selenium.dev/documentation/webdriver/browsers/chrome/ get added in these
files:
Each example should get its own test. Ideally each test has an assertion that verifies the code works as intended.
Once the code is copied to its own test in the proper file, it needs to be referenced in the markdown file.
For example, the tab in Ruby would look like this:
The line numbers at the end represent only the line or lines of code that actually represent the item being displayed.
If a user wants more context, they can click the link to the GitHub page that will show the full context.
Make sure that if you add a test to the page that all the other line numbers in the markdown file are still
correct. Adding a test at the top of a page means updating every single reference in the documentation that has a line
number for that file.
Everything from the Creating Examples section applies, with one addition.
Make sure the tab includes text=true. By default, the tabs get formatted
for code, so to use markdown or other shortcode statements (like gh-codeblock) it needs to be declared as text.
For most examples, the tabpane declares the text=true, but if some of the tabs have code examples, the tabpane
cannot specify it, and it must be specified in the tabs that do not need automatic code formatting.
explain commit normatively in one line
Body of commit message is a few lines of text, explaining things
in more detail, possibly giving some background about the issue
being fixed, etc.
The body of the commit message can be several paragraphs, and
please do proper word-wrap and keep columns shorter than about
72 characters or so. That way `git log` will show things
nicely even when it is indented.
Fixes #141
Our documentation uses Title Capitalization for linkTitle which should be short
and Sentence capitalization for title which can be longer and more descriptive.
For example, a linkTitle of Special Heading might have a title of
The importance of a special heading in documentation
Line length
When editing the documentation’s source,
which is written in plain HTML,
limit your line lengths to around 100 characters.
Some of us take this one step further
and use what is called
semantic linefeeds,
which is a technique whereby the HTML source lines,
which are not read by the public,
are split at ‘natural breaks’ in the prose.
In other words, sentences are split
at natural breaks between clauses.
Instead of fussing with the lines of each paragraph
so that they all end near the right margin,
linefeeds can be added anywhere
that there is a break between ideas.
This can make diffs very easy to read
when collaborating through git,
but it is not something we enforce contributors to use.
Translations
Selenium now has official translators for each of the supported languages.
If you add a code example to the important_documentation.en.md file,
also add it to important_documentation.ja.md, important_documentation.pt-br.md,
important_documentation.zh-cn.md.
If you make text changes in the English version, just make a Pull Request.
The new process is for issues to be created and tagged as needs translation based on
changes made in a given PR.
Code examples
All references to code should be language independent,
and the code itself should be placed inside code tabs.
To generate the above tabs, this is what you need to write.
Note that the tabpane includes langEqualsHeader=true.
This auto-formats the code in each tab to match the header name,
and ensures that all tabs on the page with a language are set to the same thing.
To ensure that all code is kept up to date, our goal is to write the code in the repo where it
can be executed when Selenium versions are updated to ensure that everything is correct.
This code can be automatically displayed in the documentation using the gh-codeblock shortcode.
The shortcode automatically generates its own html, so we do not want it to auto-format with the language header.
If all tabs are using this shortcode, set text=true in the tabpane and remove langEqualsHeader=true.
If only some tabs are using this shortcode, keep langEqualsHeader=true in the tabpane and add text=true
to the tab. Note that the gh-codeblock line can not be indented at all.
One great thing about using gh-codeblock is that it adds a link to the full example.
This means you don’t have to include any additional context code, just the line(s) that
are needed, and the user can navigate to the repo to see how to use it.
If you want your example to include something other than code (default) or html (from gh-codeblock),
you need to first set text=true,
then change the Hugo syntax for the tabto use % instead of < and > with curly braces:
This is preferred to writing code comments because those will not be translated.
Only include the code that is needed for the documentation, and avoid over-explaining.
Finally, remember not to indent plain text or it will rendered as a codeblock.
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